The Treaty of Rapallo, pursuant to which Germany and the Soviet Union re-establish diplomatic relations, is signed.

In the aftermath of the First World War, the European political landscape was scarred by conflict, mistrust, and punitive peace treaties. Two nations, Germany and Soviet Russia, found themselves largely ostracized by the international community: Germany, grappling with the stringent terms of the Treaty of Versailles, and Soviet Russia, an ideological outcast following the Bolshevik Revolution and its civil war. It was against this backdrop of isolation and mutual need that the Treaty of Rapallo emerged as a pivotal moment, fundamentally altering diplomatic relations and challenging the prevailing post-war order.

Signed on 16 April 1922, in the picturesque Italian town of Rapallo, this landmark agreement formally established friendly diplomatic relations between the German Republic (often referred to as the Weimar Republic) and Soviet Russia. More crucially, it saw both nations agree to renounce all territorial and financial claims against each other, effectively wiping the slate clean of the immense costs and damages incurred during World War I and the subsequent revolutionary period. This bold move was a significant step for both countries, signaling a pragmatic alignment that defied the expectations of the victorious Allied powers.

The Architects of Reconciliation

The negotiations leading to the Treaty of Rapallo were skillfully managed by two prominent foreign ministers. On the Russian side was Georgi Chicherin, a seasoned diplomat who served as the People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs. For Germany, the architect was Walther Rathenau, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, a visionary industrialist and politician who sought to restore Germany's standing and alleviate its post-war burdens. Their meeting in Rapallo, occurring during the broader Genoa Conference aimed at European economic reconstruction, allowed them to conduct these bilateral discussions away from the direct scrutiny of the other major powers.

The treaty's core provisions were straightforward yet profound:

For Soviet Russia, this treaty represented its first major international recognition since the Revolution, breaking the "cordon sanitaire" that Western powers had sought to impose. For Germany, it offered a pathway out of diplomatic isolation and a potential counterbalance to the dominance of France and Great Britain.

The "Spirit of Rapallo" and Its Impact

The immediate reaction to the Treaty of Rapallo was starkly divided. For Germany and Soviet Russia, it was hailed as a major diplomatic victory, a testament to their ability to forge independent foreign policy paths despite their international ostracism. This newfound camaraderie and the improvement in friendly relations between the two nations quickly came to be known as the "spirit of Rapallo." It symbolized a pragmatic, if sometimes cynical, approach to international relations, driven by mutual self-interest rather than ideological alignment.

Conversely, the treaty sent shockwaves through the capitals of France and Great Britain. For them, it was a major disappointment and a source of considerable alarm. The fear was palpable: a re-emerging Germany, potentially collaborating with a vast and resource-rich Russia, could undermine the entire post-war settlement, particularly the Treaty of Versailles, and shift the balance of power in Europe dramatically. This apprehension fueled suspicions about the true extent of the German-Soviet rapprochement.

Ratification and Formalities

Following its signing, the Treaty of Rapallo underwent the necessary formal procedures. Ratifications were exchanged in Berlin on 31 January 1923, cementing the agreement into international law. Subsequently, it was registered in the League of Nations Treaty Series on 19 September 1923, an important step for its official recognition, even though some aspects of the newfound relationship operated in the shadows.

The Unspoken Clause: Secret Military Co-operation

While the Treaty of Rapallo itself contained no explicit military provisions, it paved the way for a crucial, albeit secret, dimension of German-Soviet collaboration. Even before the treaty's signing, secret military co-operation between the two nations was already being scheduled, operating entirely outside the public eye and the official treaty text. This covert arrangement was a direct and flagrant violation of the Treaty of Versailles, which had imposed severe restrictions on Germany's military capabilities, including prohibitions on tanks, military aircraft, heavy artillery, and a general staff.

Under these clandestine agreements, Germany was able to test and develop forbidden weaponry on Soviet soil, far from the watchful eyes of Allied inspection commissions. German officers and technicians gained valuable training and experience, while the Soviet Union benefited from German technological expertise and military doctrine. This secret collaboration was a pragmatic exchange, driven by Germany's desire to circumvent Versailles restrictions and Russia's need to modernize its armed forces, both operating from a position of relative international isolation.

Expanding the Reach: The Supplementary Agreement

The initial Treaty of Rapallo focused primarily on the German Republic and Soviet Russia (specifically, the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, or RSFSR). However, the Soviet system was a rapidly evolving entity. To reflect this, a supplementary agreement was signed in Berlin on 5 November 1922. This extension broadened the original treaty's scope to cover Germany's relations with the other Soviet republics that were then federated with the RSFSR, including Ukraine, Belarus, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, and the Far Eastern Republic. This was particularly significant as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) would be formally established just weeks later, in December 1922.

Ratifications for this supplementary protocol were exchanged in Berlin on 26 October 1923, and it was subsequently registered in the League of Nations Treaty Series on 18 July 1924, further legitimizing the broad scope of German-Soviet relations on paper, even as the secret military arrangements continued discreetly.

The principles and spirit of the Treaty of Rapallo were further reaffirmed by the Treaty of Berlin in 1926, demonstrating the enduring importance of this bilateral relationship in the interwar period. This continuity underscored the strategic value both nations placed on their unique partnership, which continued to shape European diplomacy and military development for years to come.

Frequently Asked Questions About the Treaty of Rapallo

When was the Treaty of Rapallo signed?
The Treaty of Rapallo was signed on 16 April 1922.
Who were the main signatories of the treaty?
The treaty was signed between the German Republic (Weimar Republic) and Soviet Russia (Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, RSFSR).
What were the primary outcomes of the Treaty of Rapallo?
The treaty led to both nations renouncing all territorial and financial claims against each other and the establishment of friendly diplomatic relations.
Who negotiated the Treaty of Rapallo?
It was negotiated by Russian Foreign Minister Georgi Chicherin and German Foreign Minister Walther Rathenau.
Why was the Treaty of Rapallo significant for Germany and Soviet Russia?
For both nations, it was a major diplomatic victory that helped break their international isolation in the post-World War I era, allowing them to engage economically and politically without the immediate pressures of the Allied powers.
Why was the treaty a disappointment for France and Great Britain?
France and Great Britain viewed the treaty with alarm, as it signaled a potential challenge to the post-war order established by the Treaty of Versailles and raised fears of a powerful German-Russian alignment that could destabilize Europe.
What does the "spirit of Rapallo" refer to?
The "spirit of Rapallo" refers to the marked improvement in friendly relations and pragmatic cooperation between Germany and Soviet Russia following the signing of the treaty.
Did the Treaty of Rapallo include military provisions?
No, the official treaty did not include military provisions. However, it implicitly facilitated secret military co-operation between Germany and Russia, which was a violation of the Treaty of Versailles.
What was the purpose of the supplementary agreement to the treaty?
The supplementary agreement, signed in November 1922, extended the treaty's coverage to include Germany's relations with the other Soviet republics, such as Ukraine, Belarus, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, and the Far Eastern Republic.
Was the Treaty of Rapallo a permanent agreement?
The core principles of the Treaty of Rapallo were reaffirmed by the Treaty of Berlin in 1926, indicating its enduring importance in German-Soviet relations during the interwar period.