James McCune Smith, African-American physician, apothecary, abolitionist, and author (d. 1865)

James McCune Smith (April 18, 1813 – November 17, 1865) was a truly remarkable figure in 19th-century America, embodying the roles of a pioneering physician, a dedicated apothecary, a fervent abolitionist, and a prolific author. Born free in Manhattan, New York, during an era of profound racial inequality and widespread enslavement, his life journey was one of constant trailblazing and intellectual combat against the prevailing injustices of his time.

Denied admission to American medical schools due to his race, Smith bravely sought his education abroad, a testament to his determination. He matriculated at the University of Glasgow in Scotland, a more progressive institution for its era. There, he not only achieved the extraordinary feat of becoming the first African American to earn a medical degree, but he also graduated at the very top of his class, a powerful refutation of contemporary racist beliefs about Black intellectual inferiority. Upon his triumphant return to the United States, Smith continued to break barriers, establishing himself as the first African American to operate a pharmacy in the nation, a vital community hub offering both medical care and essential supplies.

A Physician and Public Intellectual

For nearly two decades, Dr. Smith dedicated his medical expertise to the vulnerable residents of the Colored Orphan Asylum in Manhattan, providing crucial healthcare to a population often neglected by the wider medical establishment. His influence, however, extended far beyond clinical practice. James McCune Smith was a quintessential public intellectual, leveraging his formidable training and sharp intellect to challenge the deeply entrenched prejudices of his society.

He was a regular contributor to medical journals and actively participated in various learned societies, positions that amplified his voice and lent scientific credibility to his arguments. Through numerous essays and articles, Smith masterfully applied his rigorous medical and statistical training to systematically dismantle common misconceptions about race, intelligence, health, and societal structures. He directly confronted "scientific racism," the pseudoscientific theories used to justify racial hierarchy, by presenting empirical evidence and logical arguments.

His intellectual prowess was recognized by his peers, leading to his invitation as a founding member of the New York Statistics Society in 1852, a pioneering organization dedicated to advancing this emerging science. In 1854, he was further honored with election as a member of the recently established American Geographic Society. Yet, despite his irrefutable qualifications and international recognition, the systemic racism prevalent in American professional bodies meant he was never admitted to the American Medical Association or any local medical associations, a stark illustration of the barriers he continually faced.

Leading the Abolitionist Movement

Perhaps most widely recognized for his unwavering leadership in the abolitionist movement, James McCune Smith was a true force for freedom. As an active member of the American Anti-Slavery Society, he worked tirelessly alongside other prominent activists. His collaboration with Frederick Douglass was particularly impactful, and together they co-founded the National Council of Colored People in 1853, marking a historic moment as the first permanent national organization for Black Americans dedicated to advocating for their rights and upliftment. Douglass himself, recognizing Smith's profound influence, famously hailed him as "the single most important influence on his life."

In 1850, following the passage of the draconian Fugitive Slave Law, which compelled citizens to assist in the capture and return of enslaved people, Smith demonstrated incredible courage by joining the Committee of Thirteen. This clandestine group, organized in Manhattan, actively resisted the law by providing essential aid to refugee slaves seeking freedom through the perilous routes of the Underground Railroad. His network of friends and colleagues included many other leading abolitionist activists of the era, solidifying his central role in the fight against slavery. From the 1840s onward, Smith was a prolific lecturer and writer, consistently producing articles that eloquently refuted racist ideas and celebrated the capabilities of Black people, laying vital groundwork for future civil rights movements.

Navigating Racial Identity and Family Legacy

James McCune Smith and his wife were both of mixed-race African and European ancestry, a common but often complex identity in 19th-century America. As Smith achieved economic success, he made the significant decision to build a house in a predominantly white neighborhood. This move profoundly impacted how his family was perceived and classified by society. In the 1860 census, he and his family were remarkably classified as white, aligning with their new neighbors. This stands in stark contrast to the 1850 census, when they were categorized as "mulatto" while residing in a predominantly African-American neighborhood, highlighting the fluid and often arbitrary nature of racial classification influenced by location and socioeconomic status.

The tragic events of the 1863 New York City Draft Riots underscore the volatile racial climate of the time. The Colored Orphan Asylum, where Smith had served for nearly two decades, was brutally burned down by a mob during these riots, which disproportionately targeted African Americans and resulted in the deaths of nearly 100 Black individuals. In response to this horrific violence and to ensure the safety of his loved ones, Smith moved his family and his medical practice to Brooklyn, joining many other Black residents who sought refuge from the pervasive racial terror in Manhattan. Throughout their lives, James and his wife emphasized the critical importance of education for their children, instilling in them values that would profoundly shape their futures. In the 1870 census, after James's passing, his widow and children continued to be classified as white, reflecting a persistent shift in their perceived racial identity.

To escape the severe limitations imposed by racial discrimination and to access greater opportunities, Smith's children made the difficult choice to "pass" into white society. His four surviving sons married white spouses, and his unmarried daughter lived with one of her brothers. They pursued successful careers as teachers, a lawyer, and various business professionals, fulfilling the educational aspirations their parents held for them. For many decades, James McCune Smith's extraordinary achievements as a pioneering African-American physician and intellectual were largely overlooked by mainstream history. However, in the twentieth century, diligent historians began the process of rediscovering and documenting his unique contributions. More recently, in a deeply poignant turn of events in the twenty-first century, his descendants, who had identified as white and were unaware of their illustrious ancestor, relearned their family history when a three-times-great-granddaughter stumbled upon his name in her grandmother's family bible during a history class. In 2010, several of Smith's descendants commissioned a new tombstone for his grave in Brooklyn, gathering together to honor his monumental legacy and reclaim their rich African-American ancestry, bringing his remarkable story full circle.


Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Who was James McCune Smith?
James McCune Smith was a prominent 19th-century American physician, apothecary, abolitionist, and author. He was the first African American to earn a medical degree, graduating at the top of his class from the University of Glasgow in Scotland, and the first to run a pharmacy in the United States.
What were James McCune Smith's major contributions to medicine?
Beyond his groundbreaking achievements as the first African American physician and pharmacist, Dr. Smith practiced medicine for nearly 20 years at the Colored Orphan Asylum. He also contributed significantly to medical journals and used his medical and statistical training to publicly refute racist misconceptions about race, intelligence, and health.
How did Smith contribute to the abolitionist movement?
He was a leading figure in the abolitionist movement, serving as a member of the American Anti-Slavery Society. Alongside Frederick Douglass, he co-founded the National Council of Colored People in 1853, the first permanent national organization for Black Americans. He also actively resisted the Fugitive Slave Law by aiding refugee slaves through the Underground Railroad as part of the Committee of Thirteen.
Why was James McCune Smith denied admission to American medical associations?
Despite his superior qualifications and international recognition, James McCune Smith was denied admission to the American Medical Association and local medical associations due to the pervasive racial discrimination and segregation prevalent in American society and professional institutions during the 19th century.
What was James McCune Smith's role as a public intellectual?
As a public intellectual, Smith actively participated in learned societies like the New York Statistics Society and the American Geographic Society. He published numerous articles and essays, using his scientific and statistical expertise to challenge and debunk prevailing racist theories about Black capacities and societal roles, advocating for factual accuracy and equality.
How did his family's racial identity evolve over time?
Born of mixed-race African and European ancestry, Smith and his family were classified differently based on their residence and socioeconomic status. In 1850, in an African-American neighborhood, they were "mulatto." By 1860, after moving to a predominantly white neighborhood and achieving economic success, they were classified as "white." After his death, his widow and children continued to be classified as white in the 1870 census, with his children ultimately "passing" into white society to escape discrimination and gain opportunities.
How were Smith's contributions rediscovered?
Smith's significant achievements were initially overlooked but were rediscovered by 20th-century historians. More recently, in the 21st century, his story was relearned by his own descendants, who had identified as white and were unaware of their connection to him until a three-times-great-granddaughter found his name in a family bible during a history class. This led to a family gathering in 2010 to honor him and their African-American ancestry.