American Civil War: Robert E. Lee resigns his commission in the United States Army in order to command the forces of the state of Virginia.

The American Civil War, a pivotal and tumultuous period in United States history, unfolded between April 12, 1861, and May 9, 1865. Known by various other names, such as the War Between the States, this conflict pitted the Union—comprising the states that steadfastly maintained their loyalty to the federal government, often referred to as "the North"—against the Confederacy, formed by the Southern states that opted to secede from the nation. It was a deeply divisive struggle that reshaped the very fabric of American society.

At its heart, the central catalyst for this devastating war was the contentious issue of slavery, particularly the vigorous debate surrounding its expansion into newly acquired territories. These lands, gained through significant events like the Louisiana Purchase and the Mexican–American War, became flashpoints for national disagreement. By 1860, on the eve of this catastrophic conflict, an alarming four million of the nation's 32 million inhabitants—roughly 13% of the population—were enslaved black people, with the overwhelming majority residing in the Southern states. This deeply entrenched practice of human bondage had festered as one of the most pressing and intractable political issues throughout the 19th century.

Decades of simmering political unrest and bitter arguments over the future of slavery ultimately brought the nation to the brink. The final push toward disunion occurred after Abraham Lincoln, running on a platform unequivocally opposing the expansion of slavery, triumphed in the 1860 United States presidential election. His victory sent shockwaves through the Southern states, leading seven of them—all slave-holding—to declare their secession from the Union and subsequently form the Confederate States of America. Immediately, Confederate forces began to seize federal forts located within the territories they now claimed as their own, escalating tensions dramatically. A desperate, last-minute legislative effort, the Crittenden Compromise, sought to avert the looming conflict, but it ultimately failed, leaving both sides with no option but to prepare for war. Hostilities finally erupted in April 1861 when the Confederate army initiated the Battle of Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina, a mere month after Abraham Lincoln's inauguration.

Over the course of the war, the Confederacy expanded its reach, coming to control at least a majority of the territory across eleven states out of the 34 U.S. states existing in February 1861, and even asserted claims over two additional ones. Both the Union and the Confederacy rapidly mobilized their populations, raising immense armies through both voluntary enlistment and conscription. What followed were four arduous years of intense combat, primarily concentrated in the Southern theater, leaving an indelible mark on the American landscape and psyche.

The Trajectory of the War: Key Campaigns and Turning Points

The initial years of the conflict saw varied fortunes for both sides. During 1861 and 1862, particularly in the war's Western Theater, the Union forces achieved significant and lasting gains, slowly but steadily tightening their grip. In stark contrast, the Eastern Theater, largely centered around the capitals of Washington D.C. and Richmond, witnessed a series of battles that were often inconclusive and costly, with neither side able to secure a decisive advantage.

A monumental shift in the war's objectives occurred on January 1, 1863, when President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation. This transformative executive order declared all persons held as slaves in the states then in rebellion against the Union to be "forever free," thereby fundamentally altering the moral and strategic stakes of the conflict. The war was no longer solely about preserving the Union; it was now also a crusade to end slavery.

Simultaneously, Union efforts in the West continued to yield critical victories. By the summer of 1862, they had effectively crippled the Confederate river navy and severely weakened much of its western armies, culminating in the crucial capture of New Orleans. The following year, the successful Union siege of Vicksburg in 1863 proved to be a strategic masterpiece, effectively splitting the Confederacy in two along the vital Mississippi River, severely hindering their ability to transport troops and supplies. That same year, Confederate General Robert E. Lee's ambitious second incursion north into Union territory was decisively halted at the epic Battle of Gettysburg, marking a significant turning point in the Eastern Theater.

The accumulating successes in the Western Theater ultimately propelled General Ulysses S. Grant to command all Union armies in 1864, signaling a new, aggressive phase of the war. With an ever-tightening naval blockade strangling Confederate ports, the Union effectively marshaled its superior resources and manpower to launch coordinated attacks against the Confederacy from multiple directions. This relentless pressure led to the fall of Atlanta in 1864 to Union General William Tecumseh Sherman, followed by his infamous "March to the Sea," which devastated much of Georgia's infrastructure and agricultural capacity. The last significant battles raged around the ten-month Siege of Petersburg, a critical gateway to the Confederate capital of Richmond.

The War's Conclusion and Lasting Impact

The American Civil War effectively drew to a close on April 9, 1865, a date etched into history when Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia to Union General Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House, just days after abandoning Petersburg and Richmond. This pivotal surrender initiated a cascade, with other Confederate generals across the remaining Confederate forces following suit. However, the conclusion of the war lacked a single, clean end date, as scattered land forces continued to surrender until as late as June 23, 1865.

By the war's end, much of the South's infrastructure lay in ruins, with its vital railroad networks particularly decimated. The Confederacy itself collapsed entirely, slavery was abolished nationwide, and four million previously enslaved black people were finally liberated. The war-torn nation then embarked upon the challenging Reconstruction era, a complex and often turbulent period aimed at physically and politically rebuilding the shattered Southern states and, crucially, attempting to secure civil rights for the newly freed slaves—an endeavor that met with only partial success.

The Civil War remains one of the most extensively studied and documented episodes in American history, its profound impact continuing to resonate through the nation's culture and historiography. It is often the subject of ongoing debate, particularly concerning the enduring and controversial myth of the Lost Cause of the Confederacy, which romanticizes the Confederate struggle and downplays the role of slavery. This conflict also stands as a crucial early example of industrial warfare, making widespread use of emerging technologies such as railroads, the telegraph, steamships, formidable ironclad warships, and mass-produced weapons. In total, the war claimed the lives of an estimated 620,000 to 750,000 soldiers, alongside an undetermined number of civilian casualties, making it the deadliest military conflict in American history. Tragically, President Lincoln himself was assassinated a mere five days after Lee's surrender. The sheer scale of its violence, coupled with its technological advancements, eerily foreshadowed the global conflicts of the coming World Wars.

Robert E. Lee: A Confederate Commander

Robert Edward Lee, born on January 19, 1807, and passing on October 12, 1870, was a highly prominent and ultimately the overall commander of the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War. He is perhaps best known for leading the Army of Northern Virginia, the Confederacy's most powerful and iconic military force, from 1862 until its final surrender in 1865. Throughout the war, Lee cultivated a formidable reputation as an exceptionally skilled tactician, earning him deep reverence from his officers and men, as well as considerable respect and fear from his adversaries within the Union Army.

Early Life, Military Career, and Personal Decision

Born into a distinguished family, Lee was the son of Revolutionary War officer Henry "Light Horse Harry" Lee III. He achieved top honors upon graduating from the United States Military Academy at West Point, embarking on what would become an exceptional 32-year career as an officer and military engineer in the United States Army. During this extensive service, he was stationed across various parts of the country, distinguished himself with valor during the Mexican–American War, and even served as the esteemed Superintendent of the United States Military Academy. His personal life was also connected to foundational American history; he married Mary Anna Custis Lee, who was the great-granddaughter of Martha Washington, wife of the first U.S. President, George Washington.

The decision that would forever alter Lee's trajectory came in 1861 when Virginia's Richmond Convention declared its secession from the Union. Despite his profound personal desire to see the nation remain intact and a compelling offer of a senior command within the Union Army, Lee ultimately chose to align his loyalties with his home state of Virginia. During the initial year of the Civil War, he served in less prominent combat operations and as a crucial senior military adviser to Confederate President Jefferson Davis, meticulously planning and strategizing for the coming conflicts.

Lee's Command of the Army of Northern Virginia

Lee's ascent to command the Army of Northern Virginia occurred in June 1862, during the pivotal Peninsula Campaign, following the wounding of its previous commander, General Joseph E. Johnston. He immediately demonstrated his tactical prowess by successfully driving the Union Army of the Potomac, under General George B. McClellan, away from the Confederate capital of Richmond during the intense Seven Days Battles. While he was unable to completely destroy McClellan's army, his actions relieved the immediate threat to Richmond. Lee then achieved another significant victory in August, overcoming Union forces led by General John Pope at the Second Battle of Bull Run (also known as Second Manassas).

His audacious invasion of Maryland in September of that year, a move intended to gain foreign recognition and relieve pressure on Virginia, culminated in the bloody and strategically inconclusive Battle of Antietam (or Sharpsburg), after which he was compelled to retreat back to Virginia. Despite this setback, Lee went on to secure two decisive victories in quick succession at Fredericksburg in December 1862 and Chancellorsville in May 1863, further solidifying his reputation as a brilliant defensive commander.

Emboldened by these successes, Lee launched a second ambitious invasion of the North in the summer of 1863. However, this offensive was decisively repelled and resulted in a crushing defeat at the monumental Battle of Gettysburg by the Union Army of the Potomac, now under the command of General George Meade. That fall, he led his army in the minor and ultimately inconclusive Bristoe Campaign before General Ulysses S. Grant took overall command of Union armies in the spring of 1864, signaling the beginning of the brutal Overland Campaign.

Grant and Lee subsequently engaged in a series of incredibly bloody, though initially inconclusive, battles at the Wilderness and Spotsylvania Court House. These led to a lengthy Siege of Petersburg, a grueling ten-month struggle of attrition. This siege ultimately ended in April 1865 with the capture of Richmond, the destruction of most of Lee's beleaguered army, and his inevitable surrender to General Grant at Appomattox Court House, effectively ending the war.

Post-War Years and Enduring Legacy

Following the war's end in 1865, Robert E. Lee embraced a new role, becoming president of Washington College (later renamed Washington and Lee University) in Lexington, Virginia. In this capacity, he actively promoted reconciliation between the North and South, urging former Confederates to accept the outcome of the war and work towards national unity. While Lee accepted "the extinction of slavery," as enshrined by the Thirteenth Amendment, he famously held views that opposed racial equality for African Americans, a perspective common among many white Southerners of his era.

After his death in 1870, Lee quickly ascended to the status of a cultural icon in the South and is widely regarded as one of the Civil War's greatest generals. As the commander of the Army of Northern Virginia, he frequently faced armies significantly larger than his own, yet he managed to achieve victories in many of these engagements, demonstrating exceptional strategic and tactical acumen. He was also adept at assembling and utilizing a collection of highly talented subordinates, most notably James Longstreet, Stonewall Jackson, and J. E. B. Stuart, whose combined prowess alongside Lee was critical to the Confederacy's battlefield successes.

Despite his undeniable achievements, Lee's command was not without its criticisms. His two major strategic offensives into Union territory, particularly the Maryland Campaign (Antietam) and the Gettysburg Campaign, both ultimately ended in failure. Furthermore, his aggressive and often risky tactical decisions, especially at Gettysburg, which resulted in exceptionally high casualties for his army at a time when the Confederacy suffered from a severe shortage of manpower, have been critically examined by historians.

Frequently Asked Questions About the American Civil War and Robert E. Lee

What was the primary cause of the American Civil War?
The central cause of the American Civil War was the status of slavery, particularly the contentious debate over whether slavery should be allowed to expand into new U.S. territories. Economic, political, and cultural differences rooted in the institution of slavery fueled decades of increasing tensions between the North and South.
Who were the main opposing sides in the Civil War?
The main opposing sides were the Union (the Northern states that remained loyal to the federal government) and the Confederacy (the Southern states that seceded from the Union, largely to preserve the institution of slavery).
When did the American Civil War begin and end?
The war officially began on April 12, 1861, with the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter. It effectively ended with Robert E. Lee's surrender at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865, though scattered surrenders continued until June 23, 1865.
What was the significance of the Emancipation Proclamation?
Issued by President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, the Emancipation Proclamation declared all enslaved people in Confederate states to be free. It transformed the war into a moral struggle against slavery, encouraged enslaved people to seek freedom, and discouraged European intervention on behalf of the Confederacy.
Who was Robert E. Lee?
Robert E. Lee was a highly respected career U.S. Army officer who chose to serve his home state of Virginia when it seceded. He became the overall commander of the Confederate States Army and famously led the Army of Northern Virginia, earning a reputation as a brilliant tactician.
Why did Robert E. Lee choose to fight for the Confederacy?
Despite his personal desire for the Union to remain intact and an offer of a senior command in the Union Army, Lee felt a stronger loyalty to his home state of Virginia. When Virginia seceded, he chose to follow it, believing his primary duty was to his state.
What were some of Robert E. Lee's most notable battles?
Lee commanded the Army of Northern Virginia in many significant battles, including the Seven Days Battles, Second Battle of Bull Run, Antietam, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, and the Overland Campaign battles (Wilderness, Spotsylvania) leading to the Siege of Petersburg and his final surrender at Appomattox Court House.
What was the ultimate outcome of the Civil War?
The Union won the war, leading to the collapse of the Confederacy, the abolition of slavery across the entire United States (via the 13th Amendment), and the preservation of the federal union. The nation then entered the Reconstruction era to rebuild and address the rights of freed slaves.
What is the "Lost Cause of the Confederacy" myth?
The "Lost Cause" is a set of beliefs that emerged in the post-Civil War South, aiming to reinterpret the Confederacy's motivations and actions. It often romanticizes the Confederate cause, glorifies its leaders (like Lee), portrays the war as a defense of states' rights rather than slavery, and minimizes the brutality of slavery while lamenting the loss of a supposedly noble Southern way of life.