Twelve thousand Wahhabis under Abdul-Aziz bin Muhammad, invaded city of Karbala, killed over three thousand inhabitants, and sacked the city.

Wahhabism (Arabic: الوهابية, romanized: al-Wahhābiyyah) is a significant Sunni Islamic religious and revivalist movement that emerged in the 18th century, profoundly shaping the religious and political landscape of the Arabian Peninsula. At its core, it represents a fundamentalist interpretation of Islam, deeply rooted in the Hanbali school of jurisprudence – one of the four major Sunni schools, often characterized by its strict adherence to the literal text of the Quran and Sunnah. This influential movement is inextricably linked to its founder, the Arabian Islamic scholar, theologian, preacher, and activist, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (c. 1703–1792).

Ibn Abd al-Wahhab established what he called the Muwahhidun movement in the rugged region of Najd in central Arabia. The name Muwahhidun (Arabic: الموحدون), meaning "one who professes God's oneness" or "Unitarians," directly reflects its central doctrine: Tawhid, the absolute oneness and uniqueness of God. This reformist drive sought to purify Islamic practices, which its adherents believed had deviated significantly from the pristine monotheism of early Islam. A particular emphasis was placed on eradicating what they considered widespread idolatrous practices among the people of Najd, such as the veneration of Muslim saints, seeking intercession through them, and making pilgrimages to their tombs and shrines – acts viewed as forms of polytheism (shirk) by the movement.

The intellectual foundations of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab and his followers were heavily influenced by the esteemed 13th-century Hanbali scholar, Ibn Taymiyyah (1263–1328 CE / 661–728 AH). Ibn Taymiyyah famously advocated for a return to the purity of the first three generations of Muslims (the Salaf), believing this approach would rid the Muslim community of what he termed "inauthentic outgrowths" or innovations (bidʻah). His extensive works served as core scholarly references in the theological framework of the Muwahhidun. While drawing heavily from Hanbali doctrines, the movement distinctively repudiated Taqlid – the practice of blind adherence to the interpretations of past legal authorities. This rejection extended even to revered figures like Ibn Taymiyyah himself and his student Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah (d. 1350 CE / 751 AH), emphasizing instead a direct engagement with the primary sources of Islam: the Quran and the Sunnah.

Devotees and various scholars have described Wahhabism in several ways: as "orthodox," "puritan(ical)," and as an Islamic "reform movement" aimed at restoring "pure monotheistic worship." However, the term "Wahhabism" itself was not adopted by Ibn Abd al-Wahhab or his immediate followers. It is predominantly used by external observers and critics, often carrying negative connotations, and can sometimes be employed as a sectarian or even Islamophobic slur. Adherents typically reject this label, preferring to identify themselves as "Salafi," a broader term also embraced by followers of other Islamic reform movements who seek to emulate the early generations of Islam. The theological framework guiding adherents of Wahhabism is the Athari school, which emphasizes a literal understanding of divine attributes without delving into philosophical interpretations or allegorical readings.

The Politico-Religious Alliance and Saudi State

A pivotal moment in the history of Wahhabism and the Arabian Peninsula occurred in 1744, when Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab forged a historic pact with Muhammad bin Saud, the local ruler of Dir'iyah. This alliance was not merely political; it was a profound politico-religious partnership that laid the groundwork for a new state. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab provided religious legitimacy and ideological fervor, while Muhammad bin Saud offered political power and protection. This symbiotic relationship endured for over 150 years, ultimately culminating in the proclamation of the modern Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932. Throughout this period, and for more than two centuries since, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's teachings were not just influential but championed as the official form of Islam and the dominant creed across what became known as the First, Second, and Third Saudi States.

In recent years, however, Saudi Arabia has witnessed significant shifts in its religious policy. Beginning around 2017, under the leadership of Crown Prince Muhammad bin Salman (MBS), the kingdom embarked on ambitious social, economic, and political reforms. These changes have included a noticeable reining in of the power and influence of the traditional religious establishment. Indeed, some observers have suggested that these reforms imply "Islamists throughout the world will have to follow suit or risk winding up on the wrong side of orthodoxy." Paradoxically, in 2018, Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman publicly denied the very existence of Wahhabism, stating that no one "can define this Wahhabism."

By 2021, the cumulative effect of these social, religious, economic, and political transformations, alongside a new educational policy that increasingly asserts a distinct "Saudi national identity" (emphasizing non-Islamic components of Saudi history and culture), led to what many have described as the "post-Wahhabi era" of Saudi Arabia. This perceived waning power of the religious clerics and their traditional influence became even more evident by 2022. A significant symbolic "uncoupling" of the religious clergy from the Saudi state was marked by the decision to celebrate "Saudi Founding Day" annually on February 22. This date commemorates the 1727 establishment of the Emirate of Dir'iyah by Muhammad ibn Saud, deliberately shifting the historical narrative away from the previous convention that traced the beginning of the Saudi state to the 1744 pact with Ibn Abd al-Wahhab. This move underscores a broader effort to redefine national identity and historical origins beyond solely religious foundations.

The Wahhabi Sack of Karbala (1802 CE)

One of the most significant and controversial historical events associated with the early Wahhabi movement was the devastating sack of Karbala, a holy city for Shia Muslims in present-day Iraq. This brutal attack occurred on April 21, 1802 (corresponding to 1216 AH), during the rule of Abdulaziz bin Muhammad, the second ruler of the First Saudi State. Approximately 12,000 Wahhabi fighters from Najd launched a swift and violent assault on the unsuspecting city. The raid was justified by the Wahhabis as retaliation for earlier attacks on Hajj caravans by Iraqi tribes. Tragically, the timing of the attack coincided with the highly sacred anniversary of the Ghadir Khum event, a significant celebration for Shia Muslims, or potentially the 10th of Muharram, known as Ashura, which commemorates the martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali – Prophet Muhammad's grandson and son of Ali ibn Abi Talib. Both dates hold immense spiritual weight for Shias, making the attack profoundly provocative and sacrilegious in their eyes.

During the assault, the Wahhabis indiscriminately killed an estimated 2,000 to 5,000 of Karbala's inhabitants. Furthermore, in line with their strict anti-veneration doctrines, they systematically plundered and desecrated the revered tomb of Husayn ibn Ali. They destroyed its magnificent dome and seized a vast quantity of valuable spoils that had accumulated within the shrine over centuries, including gold, exquisite Persian carpets, money, precious pearls, and various weapons – most of which were donations from devotees. The entire brutal attack lasted for approximately eight hours, after which the Wahhabi forces withdrew from the city, leaving behind a trail of destruction but carrying with them more than 4,000 camels laden with their plunder. This event remains a deeply painful memory for Shia Muslims and is often cited as an example of the early Wahhabi movement's strict and often violent application of its puritanical doctrines against what it perceived as idolatry and religious innovation.

Frequently Asked Questions about Wahhabism

What is Wahhabism?
Wahhabism is an 18th-century Sunni Islamic revivalist and fundamentalist movement founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. It advocates for a return to what its adherents believe are the purest forms of monotheistic worship and practices, rejecting many traditional Islamic customs as innovations (bidʻah) or forms of idolatry (shirk).
Who was Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab?
Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (c. 1703–1792) was an influential Arabian Islamic scholar, theologian, preacher, and activist who founded the Muwahhidun (Unitarians) movement in Najd. His teachings emphasized strict monotheism (Tawhid) and the purging of practices like saint veneration and shrine pilgrimages.
How is Wahhabism connected to Saudi Arabia?
Wahhabism formed a pivotal politico-religious alliance with Muhammad bin Saud in 1744, which became the ideological foundation for the First Saudi State and subsequently the modern Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. For centuries, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's teachings were championed as the official and dominant form of Islam in the Saudi states.
Why do adherents prefer not to use the term "Wahhabism"?
Adherents typically reject the term "Wahhabism" because it was primarily coined by outsiders and often carries negative or pejorative connotations. They prefer to identify as "Salafi" or "Muwahhidun," emphasizing their commitment to the early generations of Islam (the Salaf) and the absolute oneness of God (Tawhid).
What are some core tenets of Wahhabism?
Key tenets include an uncompromising emphasis on Tawhid (God's absolute oneness), strict adherence to the Quran and Sunnah, rejection of bidʻah (religious innovations), repudiation of Taqlid (blind adherence to past legal authorities), and a strong opposition to practices such as saint veneration, seeking intercession through saints, and pilgrimages to tombs and shrines.
What was the significance of the Wahhabi Sack of Karbala?
The 1802 sack of Karbala was a highly controversial event where Wahhabi forces attacked the holy Shia city, killing thousands and desecrating the tomb of Husayn ibn Ali. It symbolized the early Wahhabi movement's violent application of its anti-veneration doctrines and remains a deeply painful historical memory for Shia Muslims, highlighting the severe sectarian conflict.
Is Wahhabism still the official ideology of Saudi Arabia?
While historically central, recent reforms under Crown Prince Muhammad bin Salman have led to a significant "uncoupling" of the religious clergy from the state and a redefinition of national identity. While Wahhabi-influenced religious institutions still exist, the overt promotion of Wahhabism as the sole official ideology has lessened, leading some to describe the current era as "post-Wahhabi."