Russo-Turkish War: Russian Empire declares war on Ottoman Empire.

The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, a watershed moment in 19th-century European history, was a significant military confrontation between the waning Ottoman Empire and a coalition of Eastern Orthodox Christian states led by the Russian Empire. This formidable coalition included the emerging nations of Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro, all of whom sought to cast off the yoke of Ottoman rule. Known in Turkey as the "93 Harbi," a name derived from the year 1293 in the Islamic Rumi calendar, which corresponded to the Gregorian year of the war, and in Russia as the "Russko-turetskaya voyna," this conflict unfolded across the challenging terrains of the Balkans and the strategically important Caucasus region.

The Seeds of Conflict: Nationalism and Imperial Ambition

The origins of this pivotal war were deeply rooted in the complex geopolitical landscape of the mid-19th century, particularly the burgeoning wave of Balkan nationalism. As the Ottoman Empire, often termed the "Sick Man of Europe," struggled with internal reforms and external pressures, its grip on its Christian-majority provinces in the Balkans began to weaken. Peoples like the Bulgarians, Serbs, Romanians, and Montenegrins, inspired by a growing sense of national identity and a desire for self-determination, increasingly yearned for independence.

Beyond the cries for national liberation, Russia harbored its own long-standing strategic objectives. Still smarting from the territorial losses and diplomatic humiliation suffered during the Crimean War of 1853–1856, the Russian Empire sought to reclaim its influence in the Black Sea region. The Treaty of Paris (1856) had severely restricted Russian naval presence there, and Moscow was determined to overturn these limitations. Furthermore, Russia saw itself as the protector of Orthodox Christians within the Ottoman Empire, aligning its pan-Slavic ideology with the aspirations of the Balkan peoples. This convergence of Russian imperial ambition and Balkan nationalist fervor created a potent cocktail for conflict.

A Decisive Victory and the Shadow of Great Powers

The Russian-led coalition achieved a decisive victory, demonstrating the Ottoman Empire's declining military might. Their forces pushed deep into Ottoman territory, reaching the very gates of Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul), the historic capital. This dramatic advance, however, immediately raised alarms among the Western European great powers, particularly Great Britain and Austria-Hungary. They feared a complete collapse of the Ottoman Empire, which they viewed as a crucial buffer against Russian expansion into the Mediterranean and the Middle East, a delicate balance often referred to as the "Eastern Question." This apprehension led to swift diplomatic intervention to prevent Russia from unilaterally dictating the terms of peace.

Reshaping the Map: From San Stefano to Berlin

The initial peace agreement, the Treaty of San Stefano, signed on March 3, 1878, largely reflected Russia's military success and its vision for the future of the Balkans. It proposed a "Greater Bulgaria" that would have significantly altered the regional balance of power. However, this expansive outcome was deemed unacceptable by the other Great Powers. Consequently, a new diplomatic conference was convened in Berlin later that year, orchestrated primarily by German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, to revise the terms and avoid a wider European conflict.

Key Outcomes of the War and the Congress of Berlin (1878):

A Lasting Legacy: Liberation and Shifting Perspectives

The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, and particularly the Treaty of San Stefano that preceded the Congress of Berlin, holds immense historical and cultural significance, especially in Bulgaria. March 3rd, the date of the Treaty of San Stefano, is celebrated annually as Liberation Day in Bulgaria, commemorating the end of Ottoman rule and the establishment of the modern Bulgarian state. While the initial treaty was superseded by the Congress of Berlin, its symbolic importance as the moment of national liberation remains profound for the Bulgarian people. Interestingly, during the years of Communist rule, the emphasis on Russian military intervention as the primary catalyst for liberation somewhat fell out of official favor, with narratives often shifting to highlight internal struggles and the broader international context, though its historical significance was never fully diminished.

FAQs About the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878

What were the main causes of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878?
The war was primarily caused by burgeoning Balkan nationalism and the desire for independence from the Ottoman Empire, coupled with Russia's strategic goals of recovering lost influence from the Crimean War, re-establishing its presence in the Black Sea, and championing the cause of Orthodox Christian Slavic peoples under Ottoman rule.
Who were the main combatants in the war?
The primary combatants were the Ottoman Empire on one side, and a coalition led by the Russian Empire, which included Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro, on the other.
What was the "93 Harbi"?
The "93 Harbi" is the Turkish name for the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. It refers to the year 1293 in the Islamic Rumi calendar, which coincided with the Gregorian year of the conflict.
What was the significance of the Treaty of San Stefano?
Signed on March 3, 1878, the Treaty of San Stefano initially proposed an expansive "Greater Bulgaria" and granted significant concessions to Russia. While it was later revised, it is celebrated as Liberation Day in Bulgaria as it symbolized the end of Ottoman rule and the establishment of an independent Bulgarian state.
Why was the Congress of Berlin convened?
The Congress of Berlin was convened by the European Great Powers (Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, and the Ottoman Empire) in 1878 because they were alarmed by the significant gains made by Russia in the Treaty of San Stefano. They feared Russian dominance in the Balkans and a complete collapse of the Ottoman Empire, which would upset the delicate balance of power in Europe.
What were the key outcomes of the Congress of Berlin for the Balkan states?
The Congress of Berlin formally recognized the full independence of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro. It also established an autonomous Principality of Bulgaria, albeit smaller than what was initially envisioned by the Treaty of San Stefano, marking a crucial step towards its full sovereignty.
What territorial changes resulted from the war and the Congress of Berlin?
Russia gained Kars and Batum in the Caucasus, and the Budjak region. Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Great Britain took over Cyprus. Romania received Northern Dobrudja. The new Principality of Bulgaria was created.
How is the war remembered in Bulgaria today?
In Bulgaria, March 3rd is celebrated as Liberation Day, commemorating the signing of the Treaty of San Stefano and the end of nearly five centuries of Ottoman rule, marking the birth of the modern Bulgarian state.