First Barbary War: United States Marines captured Derne under the command of First Lieutenant Presley O'Bannon.

The dawn of the 19th century found the fledgling United States facing a significant challenge to its burgeoning maritime trade and national pride: the relentless depredations of the Barbary States. This period of conflict, known primarily as the First Barbary War (1801–1805), also referred to as the Tripolitan War or the Barbary Coast War, marked the nascent republic's first major foray into overseas military action. It pitted the United States, alongside the Kingdom of Sweden, against a confederation of four North African states – Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, and Morocco – collectively infamous as the "Barbary States."

For centuries, these states, situated along the North African coast, had engaged in state-sponsored privateering, essentially piracy, as a primary source of income. Their corsairs would seize merchant vessels in the Mediterranean, capturing crews, and then demand exorbitant ransoms or annual tributes from European powers and, increasingly, from the newly independent United States, for safe passage. While many European nations had, for expediency, opted to pay this protection money, the young American nation found itself in a precarious position. After gaining independence from Great Britain, American merchant ships no longer enjoyed the protection of the powerful Royal Navy, leaving them vulnerable to these predatory attacks.

The Refusal to Pay Tribute and the Outbreak of War

The primary catalyst for direct U.S. involvement in the First Barbary War was the audacious practice of these North African pirates. American merchant ships were routinely captured, their cargoes plundered, and their crews enslaved and held for ransom. The Barbary rulers demanded substantial tribute payments from the U.S. government as a prerequisite for undisturbed maritime trade. However, this policy of appeasement sharply contrasted with the principles espoused by the newly inaugurated President Thomas Jefferson.

Upon taking office, Jefferson, a staunch advocate for a strong national defense and American sovereignty, made a decisive stand: he unequivocally refused to continue paying the tribute. He famously declared, "millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute." This refusal was not merely an economic decision but a profound assertion of national dignity and the right to free navigation on the high seas. While the U.S. prepared for conflict, Sweden had already been embroiled in hostilities with the Tripolitans since 1800 over similar issues, adding a crucial, though often overlooked, European dimension to the conflict.

The Audacious Campaign and the Battle of Derna

The early years of the war saw various naval skirmishes and blockades by the fledgling U.S. Navy. However, the conflict's most dramatic and ultimately decisive moment came with an extraordinary land campaign culminating in the Battle of Derna in April-May 1805. This audacious operation was conceived and led by a remarkable duo: U.S. Army Lieutenant William Eaton, who served as the diplomatic Consul to Tripoli, and U.S. Marine Corps First Lieutenant Presley Neville O'Bannon.

Eaton, a visionary with a deep understanding of regional politics, devised a plan to depose the reigning Pasha of Tripoli, Yusuf Karamanli, and reinstate his exiled elder brother, Hamet Karamanli, who had a legitimate claim to the throne. To achieve this, Eaton assembled a small, motley mercenary army. This force comprised a diverse group including approximately 10 U.S. Marines, Greek and Arab mercenaries, and followers of Hamet Karamanli, all united under American command.

Their incredible journey began in Alexandria, Egypt. From there, the force embarked on an arduous and legendary 521-mile (839-km) forced march across the unforgiving North African desert, facing extreme heat, scarcity of water, and constant threats of desert raiders. Their destination was Derna, a strategically vital port city in what was then Cyrenaica (modern-day eastern Libya). The city was well-defended by a force significantly larger than Eaton's expeditionary corps.

On April 27, 1805, after weeks of gruelling travel, the American-led force, supported by naval bombardments from the USS Argus, Hornet, and Nautilus offshore, launched its assault on Derna. Lieutenant O'Bannon led the Marines and mercenaries with conspicuous bravery, facing fierce resistance. In a swift and decisive engagement, the city's defenses were breached, and Derna was captured. This remarkable victory, achieved by a tiny but determined force against overwhelming odds and in a hostile environment, sent shockwaves through the Barbary States. It marked the first time the American flag was raised in victory on foreign soil, a profound symbol for the young nation.

Aftermath and Legacy

The capture of Derna proved to be the turning point in the First Barbary War. Faced with the prospect of his brother Hamet reclaiming the throne and the immediate threat posed by Eaton's forces, Yusuf Karamanli was compelled to negotiate. A peace treaty, known as the Treaty of Peace and Amity, was signed on June 10, 1805. While the treaty did include a ransom payment for the release of American prisoners (including the crew of the USS Philadelphia), it largely secured an end to tribute payments from the U.S. to Tripoli and provided for mutual prisoner exchange.

The First Barbary War, though relatively small in scale compared to later conflicts, held immense significance for the United States. It solidified the principle that the U.S. would not succumb to extortion and was prepared to defend its commercial interests and the lives of its citizens abroad. The war also played a crucial role in shaping the identity and capabilities of the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps. The heroic actions at Derna, particularly the bravery of O'Bannon and his Marines, are immortalized in the opening lines of the Marine Corps Hymn: "From the halls of Montezuma to the shores of Tripoli," forever linking their legacy to this distant North African conflict.

Although the war ended the immediate threat from Tripoli, piracy from other Barbary States continued intermittently, eventually necessitating the Second Barbary War in 1815, which finally brought a definitive end to Barbary tribute demands and large-scale piracy against American shipping.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

What were the Barbary States?
The Barbary States were a group of four semi-autonomous North African states – Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, and Morocco – that operated largely independently of the Ottoman Empire. Situated along the Barbary Coast, they were notorious for state-sponsored privateering (piracy) against merchant shipping in the Mediterranean Sea, demanding tribute payments for safe passage or holding crews for ransom.
Why did the U.S. participate in the First Barbary War?
The United States participated because Barbary pirates were seizing American merchant ships, plundering cargo, and enslaving crews for ransom. The Barbary rulers demanded that the U.S. pay annual tribute for protection, a practice President Thomas Jefferson refused to continue, seeing it as an affront to national sovereignty and an unsustainable economic burden.
Who was President Thomas Jefferson, and what was his role?
Thomas Jefferson was the third President of the United States. He played a pivotal role in the First Barbary War by refusing to pay the demanded tribute to the Barbary States, thereby shifting American policy from appeasement to military confrontation. His principled stand led to the deployment of the nascent U.S. Navy to protect American shipping and interests.
What was the significance of the Battle of Derna?
The Battle of Derna (April-May 1805) was the decisive victory of the First Barbary War. It involved an audacious land march by a small American-led mercenary force that captured the city of Derna, Tripoli's eastern port. This unexpected victory put immense pressure on Yusuf Karamanli, the Pasha of Tripoli, forcing him to negotiate a peace treaty and effectively ending the war.
What does "to the shores of Tripoli" mean in the Marine Corps Hymn?
The phrase "to the shores of Tripoli" in the U.S. Marine Corps Hymn directly commemorates the bravery and success of the Marines and their allies during the Battle of Derna in 1805. It symbolizes the Marine Corps' first major overseas engagement and their pivotal role in a conflict that asserted American power and protected its citizens abroad.
Did the First Barbary War permanently end piracy from the Barbary States?
While the First Barbary War significantly reduced immediate threats from Tripoli and ended U.S. tribute payments to that state, it did not permanently eliminate piracy from all Barbary States. Intermittent attacks continued from Algiers and Tunis, leading to the Second Barbary War in 1815, which ultimately brought a more conclusive end to state-sponsored piracy and tribute demands against American shipping.