Under international pressure, Syria withdraws the last of its 14,000 troop military garrison in Lebanon, ending its 29-year military domination of that country (Syrian occupation of Lebanon).

Syria, officially known as the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic: سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة, Sūriyā; official Arabic: ٱلْجُمْهُورِيَّةُ ٱلْعَرَبِيَّةُ ٱلسُّورِيَّةُ, romanized: al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a country situated at the crossroads of Western Asia. This strategically important nation shares its western coastline with the Mediterranean Sea, offering a vital maritime link. Its land borders are well-defined: Turkey to the north, Iraq stretching across its eastern and southeastern flanks, Jordan to the south, and both Israel and Lebanon to the southwest. Just beyond its western shores, across the Mediterranean, lies the island nation of Cyprus.

Syria's landscape is remarkably varied, encompassing fertile plains, towering mountains, and vast desert expanses, each contributing to its rich ecological tapestry. This geographical diversity is mirrored in its human mosaic; Syria is home to a multitude of ethnic and religious communities. The majority population comprises Syrian Arabs, alongside significant groups such as Kurds, Turkmens, Assyrians, Armenians, Circassians, Mandaeans, and Greeks. Spiritually, the nation hosts an equally diverse array of faiths, including Sunnis (who constitute the largest religious group), Christians, Alawites, Druze, Isma'ilis, Mandaeans, Shiites, Salafis, and Yazidis. The vibrant capital and largest urban center is Damascus, a city steeped in history. While Arabs form the predominant ethnic group, the Sunni denomination holds the largest share among its religious adherents.

The name "Syria" itself carries a deep historical resonance, traditionally referring to a much broader geographical expanse often synonymous with the Levant region, famously known in Arabic as al-Sham. The modern Syrian state proudly encompasses the remnants of several ancient kingdoms and empires, a testament to its profound historical significance. Among these are the vestiges of the Eblan civilization, which flourished as early as the 3rd millennium BC. Indeed, its iconic cities, Aleppo and the capital Damascus, stand as two of the oldest continuously inhabited urban centers on Earth, echoing millennia of human stories. In the Islamic era, Damascus ascended to prominence as the esteemed seat of the Umayyad Caliphate, and later served as a crucial provincial capital under the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt, underscoring its enduring geopolitical and cultural importance.

The contemporary Syrian state began to take shape in the mid-20th century, emerging from centuries of Ottoman rule and a subsequent, albeit brief, period under a French Mandate. This newly formed entity represented the largest Arab state to arise from the former Ottoman-ruled Syrian provinces. Syria achieved its de jure independence as a parliamentary republic on October 24, 1945, a pivotal moment marked by its becoming a founding member of the United Nations. This act formally concluded the French Mandate, though French troops did not fully withdraw from the country until April 1946, leaving a lasting impact on the nation's early development.

The years following independence were characterized by considerable political instability and turbulence. From 1949 to 1971, Syria experienced a series of military coups and attempted coups, reflecting deep internal divisions and regional pressures. A notable chapter during this period was a brief union with Egypt in 1958, forming the United Arab Republic, which ultimately dissolved after a Syrian coup d'état in 1961. Following a constitutional referendum in December 1961, the republic was renamed the Arab Republic of Syria. The instability persisted until the Ba'athist coup d'état in 1963, after which the Ba'ath Party consolidated and maintained its power, establishing a single-party rule. From 1963 until 2011, Syria operated under an Emergency Law, which effectively suspended many constitutional protections for its citizens, concentrating power within the state apparatus.

Syria is also a unitary republic consisting of 14 governorates and holds the unique distinction of being the only country that politically espouses Ba'athism. Beyond its membership in the United Nations, Syria is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement. However, it faced suspension from the Arab League in November 2011 and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, and chose to self-suspend from the Union for the Mediterranean, reflecting its complex standing in regional and international relations.

Syria's leadership since 1971 has been dominated by the Assad family. Hafez al-Assad governed from 1971 to 2000, and upon his death, his son, Bashar al-Assad, assumed the presidency, a position he has held since 2000. Throughout their rule, both Syria and the ruling Ba'ath Party have faced significant international condemnation and criticism for various alleged human rights abuses. These include accusations of frequent executions of citizens and political prisoners, along with extensive censorship that restricts freedom of expression. A profound and devastating chapter in Syria's modern history began in March 2011, when the country plunged into a multi-sided civil war. This conflict has drawn in numerous countries from the region and beyond, involving them militarily or through other forms of intervention. As a tragic consequence, several self-proclaimed political entities have emerged and asserted control over parts of Syrian territory, including the Syrian opposition, Rojava, Tahrir al-Sham, and the Islamic State group. The immense human cost of this conflict is staggering; Syria was ranked last on the Global Peace Index from 2016 to 2018, tragically designating it as the most violent country in the world due to the ongoing war. Estimates report over 570,000 lives lost, 7.6 million people internally displaced as of July 2015 (UNHCR estimate), and more than 5 million refugees registered by UNHCR as of July 2017, rendering accurate population assessments exceedingly challenging in recent years.

Syria's Historical Involvement in Lebanon

The Syrian Occupation of Lebanon: Origins and Evolution

Syria's substantial military presence and political influence in Lebanon, often referred to as the Syrian occupation (Arabic: الاحتلال السوري للبنان, French: Occupation syrienne du Liban), commenced in 1976 amidst the devastating Lebanese Civil War. This intervention, which profoundly shaped Lebanese politics and society for nearly three decades, eventually concluded on April 30, 2005. The catalyst for the Syrian withdrawal was a confluence of international pressure, a significant internal Lebanese uprising known as the Cedar Revolution, and widespread public demonstrations that garnered participation from the majority of the Lebanese populace. The formal withdrawal agreement was notably signed by Syrian President Bashar al-Assad and Saad Hariri, the son of the assassinated former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafic Hariri, whose death sparked much of the unrest.

In January 1976, early in the civil war, a Syrian proposal aimed at reinstating the pre-war limits on Palestinian guerrilla activities within Lebanon was met with approval by Maronite factions but vehemently rejected by the Palestinian guerrillas themselves, highlighting the complex web of allegiances and conflicts. Later, in October 1976, at a crucial meeting of the Arab League, Syria agreed to a ceasefire. Subsequently, the League's ministers decided to expand a small existing Arab peacekeeping force in Lebanon. However, this force rapidly transformed into a much larger Arab Deterrent Force, composed almost entirely of Syrian troops. This expansion effectively legitimized the Syrian military intervention and even saw Syria receive subsidies from the Arab League to fund its operations, further cementing its role.

By 1989, as the Lebanese Civil War approached its final accords, the political landscape was fractured, leading to the formation of two rival administrations in Lebanon. One was a military government led by General Michel Aoun in East Beirut, while the other was a civilian administration under Selim el-Hoss, based in West Beirut. The latter garnered the crucial support of the Syrians. General Aoun staunchly opposed the Syrian presence in Lebanon, frequently citing the United Nations Security Council Resolution 520 of 1982, which called for a ceasefire and the withdrawal of all non-Lebanese forces. This opposition culminated in the "War of Liberation," which erupted in March 1989. Aoun's forces were ultimately defeated, and he himself was exiled from Lebanon, solidifying Syrian influence.

A significant legal framework for Syria's presence was established in 1991 with the signing of the "Treaty of Brotherhood, Cooperation, and Coordination" between Lebanon and Syria. This treaty formally legitimized the Syrian military presence, stipulating that Lebanon would not be allowed to pose a threat to Syria's security, and conversely, that Syria bore the responsibility for protecting Lebanon from external threats. Further reinforcing these ties, a Defense and Security Pact was enacted between the two countries in September of the same year, intertwining their security interests.

The Withdrawal: The Cedar Revolution and its Aftermath

The turning point for Syria's presence in Lebanon arrived with the international community's adoption of UN Security Council Resolution 1559 in 2004, which called for the withdrawal of all foreign forces from Lebanon and the disbanding of all Lebanese and non-Lebanese militias. However, the true impetus for change came after the shocking assassination of former Lebanese Premier Rafic Hariri in 2005. The widespread public outrage, fueled by allegations of Syrian involvement in his death, ignited a massive popular uprising known as the Cedar Revolution. This nationwide movement, characterized by peaceful demonstrations and intense international pressure, ultimately compelled Syria to complete its full military withdrawal from Lebanon on April 30, 2005, marking the end of nearly three decades of occupation and ushering in a new, albeit fragile, era for Lebanese sovereignty.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

What is the official name of Syria?
Syria's official name is the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic: ٱلْجُمْهُورِيَّةُ ٱلْعَرَبِيَّةُ ٱلسُّورِيَّةُ).
Where is Syria located geographically?
Syria is located in Western Asia, bordering the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east and southeast, Jordan to the south, and Israel and Lebanon to the southwest.
What are the primary ethnic and religious groups in Syria?
Syria is home to diverse groups, with the majority being Syrian Arabs ethnically and Sunnis religiously. Other significant groups include Kurds, Turkmens, Assyrians, Armenians, Christians, Alawites, Druze, and Shiites.
When did Syria gain independence?
Syria gained de jure independence as a parliamentary republic on October 24, 1945, becoming a founding member of the United Nations. French troops, however, fully departed in April 1946.
What is Ba'athism and its significance in Syria?
Ba'athism is an Arab nationalist and socialist ideology. Syria is notable as the only country that politically espouses Ba'athism, with the Ba'ath Party maintaining power since a 1963 coup d'état.
What led to the Syrian Civil War?
The Syrian Civil War, which began in March 2011, arose from a complex interplay of internal discontent, calls for political reform during the Arab Spring, government crackdowns, and regional and international interventions, leading to a multi-sided conflict.
When did Syria's military occupation of Lebanon begin and end?
Syria's military occupation of Lebanon began in 1976 during the Lebanese Civil War and concluded on April 30, 2005, following the Cedar Revolution and international pressure.
What was the Cedar Revolution?
The Cedar Revolution was a series of widespread public demonstrations in Lebanon in 2005, largely triggered by the assassination of former Prime Minister Rafic Hariri and allegations of Syrian involvement. It ultimately led to Syria's full military withdrawal from Lebanon.