Thomas Reid, Scottish philosopher and academic (d. 1796)

Thomas Reid (7 May 1710, or 26 April 1710 by the Old Style calendar, – 7 October 1796) was a towering figure in 18th-century Scottish intellectual life, renowned as a religiously trained Scottish philosopher whose ideas profoundly shaped the trajectory of modern thought. Born into a devout Presbyterian family in Strachan, Kincardineshire, his early life and education were steeped in the moral and theological traditions of the Church of Scotland, influences that would undeniably permeate his philosophical outlook. He became a minister before transitioning to an academic career, first as a professor at King's College, Aberdeen, and later succeeding Adam Smith as Professor of Moral Philosophy at the University of Glasgow.

Reid is most celebrated as the founder of the Scottish School of Common Sense, a philosophical movement that sought to defend the reliability of human reason and perception against the rising tide of skepticism prevalent during his era. His work played an integral and defining role in the vibrant intellectual flourishing known as the Scottish Enlightenment, a period characterized by an intense focus on reason, empiricism, and human progress across various disciplines, from philosophy and economics to science and literature. This was an age when Edinburgh and Glasgow stood as significant intellectual hubs, rivaling the great continental centers of learning.

Beyond his profound philosophical contributions, Reid was also an active participant in the institutional development of Scottish intellectual life. In 1783, he notably served as a joint founder of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, an esteemed learned society dedicated to the advancement of science and literature. This involvement underscored his commitment not only to individual philosophical inquiry but also to the communal pursuit and dissemination of knowledge.

Intellectually, Reid is perhaps best understood in relation to his contemporary, the equally influential David Hume. While they shared the intellectual landscape of the Scottish Enlightenment, their philosophical paths diverged dramatically. Reid emerged as "Hume's earliest and fiercest critic," meticulously dissecting and challenging the implications of Hume's radical empiricism and skepticism. He argued that Hume's philosophy, by reducing human experience to a succession of disconnected impressions and ideas, ultimately undermined the very foundations of knowledge, morality, and even personal identity. Reid's counter-argument posited that certain fundamental beliefs—such as the existence of an external world, the reliability of our senses, and the reality of cause and effect—are not derived from complex chains of reasoning but are instead self-evident, innate principles of "common sense" that we are naturally endowed with by a benevolent Creator.

The Scottish School of Common Sense

The Scottish School of Common Sense, spearheaded by Thomas Reid, represented a significant intellectual counter-movement in the 18th century. It emerged as a direct response to the perceived dangers of philosophical skepticism, particularly as articulated by David Hume. Reid and his followers argued that human beings are naturally equipped with certain fundamental beliefs or "first principles" that are intuitively true and serve as the bedrock of our understanding of the world.

Core Tenets:

The School of Common Sense gained considerable influence, particularly in Scotland, America, and France, impacting not just philosophy but also theology, education, and legal thought. Its emphasis on accessible reason and moral intuition resonated deeply in societies grappling with the intellectual aftermath of the Enlightenment.

Thomas Reid's Philosophical Engagement with David Hume

The intellectual relationship between Thomas Reid and David Hume is one of the most celebrated and pivotal in the history of philosophy. While they never met, their ideas were in constant dialogue, shaping the trajectory of 18th-century thought. Reid regarded Hume's philosophy as both brilliantly constructed and deeply unsettling, fearing its implications for knowledge, morality, and religion.

Reid's Critique of Humean Skepticism:

The "Theory of Ideas" and its Consequences:
Hume, following earlier empiricists like Locke and Berkeley, operated on the premise that all our knowledge originates from sense impressions and ideas derived from them. Reid argued that this "theory of ideas," which assumes we only perceive our own mental states and not external reality directly, inevitably leads to skepticism. If we can only know our ideas, how can we ever verify the existence of an external world, other minds, or even our own enduring self?
Causation and Induction:
Hume famously argued that we have no rational basis for believing in necessary causal connections or the uniformity of nature (induction). We only observe constant conjunctions of events. Reid countered that our belief in causation is not a product of observation or habit alone, but a fundamental principle of common sense, a natural intuition that allows us to navigate and understand the world.
The Self and Personal Identity:
Hume concluded that the self is merely "a bundle or collection of different perceptions," lacking any enduring, unified substance. Reid found this deeply problematic, arguing that our innate conviction of personal identity—the belief that we are the same individual over time—is another fundamental truth of common sense, essential for moral accountability and coherent experience.
Moral Philosophy:
While both were interested in moral philosophy, Hume sought to ground morality in sentiment and feeling, whereas Reid argued for a robust, rational moral faculty (conscience) that directly perceives moral truths, much like our senses perceive physical ones. He believed that denying objective moral truths would lead to moral anarchy.

Reid's critique was not born of animosity but of a deep intellectual concern for the foundations of human knowledge and flourishing. He saw himself as defending common human experience and the inherent structure of the mind against what he considered the extreme, yet logically consistent, conclusions of Hume's philosophical system. His work provided a robust alternative framework that resonated widely and continues to be studied for its insights into epistemology and moral philosophy.

FAQs

What is the Scottish School of Common Sense?
The Scottish School of Common Sense was an influential philosophical movement founded by Thomas Reid in the 18th century. It argued that humans possess innate, self-evident principles or "common sense" beliefs (like the existence of an external world, causation, and personal identity) that are fundamental to human experience and reason, serving as a bulwark against philosophical skepticism.
How did Thomas Reid differ from David Hume?
Thomas Reid was a prominent critic of David Hume. While both were figures of the Scottish Enlightenment, Reid fundamentally disagreed with Hume's skepticism. Reid argued for direct realism and the existence of innate common-sense principles, believing that Hume's empiricism led to unsustainable conclusions about the external world, causation, and the self. Hume sought to derive all knowledge from sense impressions, while Reid posited that certain fundamental beliefs are intuitively given.
What was Reid's main contribution to philosophy?
Reid's main contribution was the founding and articulation of the Scottish School of Common Sense. He developed a comprehensive philosophical system that championed direct realism, defended the reliability of human perception and reason, and provided a robust critique of skepticism, particularly that of David Hume. His work profoundly influenced later philosophical thought, especially in Anglo-American philosophy.
What does "common sense" mean in Reid's philosophy?
In Reid's philosophy, "common sense" refers not to ordinary sagacity but to a set of fundamental, self-evident beliefs or "first principles" that are intuitively held by all sane human beings. These include beliefs in the existence of an external world, the reliability of our senses, the reality of causation, and the continuity of personal identity. Reid argued that these principles are natural endowments of human reason and are necessary for thought, action, and moral judgment.
Was Thomas Reid a religious philosopher?
Yes, Thomas Reid was indeed a religiously trained philosopher. He was educated in the Presbyterian tradition, served as a minister, and his philosophical work was deeply informed by his religious convictions. He believed that the principles of common sense were endowed by a benevolent Creator, and he saw his philosophy as a defense of reason and morality against skepticism, which he felt undermined religious belief and ethical life.