Sultan of Ottoman Empire Abdul Hamid II is overthrown, and is succeeded by his brother, Mehmed V.

Understanding the Title of Sultan

The term "Sultan" (Arabic: سلطان, sulṭān, pronounced [sʊlˈtˤɑːn, solˈtˤɑːn]) carries a rich historical tapestry woven through centuries of Islamic civilization. Its origins trace back to an Arabic abstract noun, signifying profound concepts such as "strength," "authority," and "rulership." This etymological root is deeply embedded in the verbal noun sulṭah (سلطة), which concretely means "authority" or "power."

Over time, the word transcended its abstract philosophical meaning to become a prestigious title for various rulers. These leaders often commanded almost complete practical sovereignty, meaning they operated without direct dependence on a higher monarch. Crucially, while they exercised significant power, they generally did not lay claim to the overarching religious and political authority of the Caliphate. Alternatively, the title could also refer to a powerful governor managing a specific province within a larger Caliphate, acting with considerable autonomy. The adjectival form, describing something pertaining to a sultan, is "sultanic," while the territory or dynasty governed by a sultan is known as a sultanate (سلطنة, salṭanah).

Sultan vs. King: A Nuanced Distinction

While both "Sultan" and "King" (Arabic: ملك, malik) denote a sovereign ruler, their usage carries distinct historical, cultural, and religious implications. The title "Sultan" is traditionally and predominantly confined to Muslim-majority countries and regions, where it often carries a specific religious and historical significance, sometimes implying a protector of the faith or a leader whose authority is derived within an Islamic framework. This stands in contrast to the more universal title of "King," which tends to be more secular in its modern application and is used across both Muslim and non-Muslim nations globally.

However, in recent decades, there has been a noticeable trend among contemporary hereditary rulers to transition from the title of "Sultan" to "King." This shift often signals a desire to emphasize a more secular form of governance, rooted in the rule of law rather than religious or traditional authority, and to align with a more globally recognized nomenclature for sovereign heads of state. A prominent historical example of this evolution is Morocco, where its monarch officially changed his title from Sultan to King in 1957, marking a symbolic departure from an older system towards a modern constitutional monarchy.

Abdul Hamid II: The Last Effective Sultan of the Ottoman Empire

Abdul Hamid II (Ottoman Turkish: عبد الحميد ثانی, romanized: Abdülhamîd-i sânî; Turkish: II. Abdülhamid; born 21 September 1842, died 10 February 1918) reigned as the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 31 August 1876 to 27 April 1909. His rule is particularly significant as he was the last Ottoman Sultan to wield substantial effective control over a state that was increasingly fracturing and facing immense internal and external pressures. The period of his reign is often historically referred to as the Hamidian Era.

Challenges and Conflicts During His Reign

Abdul Hamid II inherited an empire in decline and presided over a tumultuous era marked by widespread rebellions, particularly in the Balkan regions, as nationalist sentiments flared across its diverse territories. His reign saw the Empire engage in several significant conflicts, including an ultimately unsuccessful war against the formidable Russian Empire (1877–1878), which resulted in substantial territorial losses. However, demonstrating moments of military capability, he also oversaw a successful war against the Kingdom of Greece in 1897.

Modernization and Authoritarianism

Early in his rule, in a seemingly progressive move made in agreement with the liberal-minded Young Ottomans, Abdul Hamid II promulgated the Ottoman Empire's first Constitution. This landmark document was a beacon of reformist thinking, signaling a potential shift towards a more constitutional monarchy. Yet, this initial embrace of constitutionalism was short-lived. By 1878, citing irreconcilable disagreements with the newly formed Ottoman Parliament, Abdul Hamid II suspended both the constitution and the parliament, ushering in a period of more autocratic rule.

Despite his authoritarian tendencies, the modernization of the Ottoman Empire continued apace under his guidance. Significant infrastructure projects were undertaken, including the extension of the Rumelia Railway and the Anatolia Railway, alongside the ambitious construction of the Baghdad Railway and the Hejaz Railway. These railway networks were not merely for transport but were strategic tools for consolidating imperial control and fostering economic development. Furthermore, systems for population registration and stricter control over the press were established, alongside the founding of the first local modern law school in 1898, reflecting a broader effort to centralize and bureaucratize the state.

Perhaps the most far-reaching reforms occurred in the realm of education. Numerous professional schools were established across the Empire, catering to a wide array of fields including law, arts, trades, civil engineering, veterinary medicine, customs administration, farming, and linguistics, aiming to create a modern administrative and technical cadre. Although Istanbul University faced a temporary closure in 1881, it was re-opened in 1900, and a comprehensive network of secondary, primary, and military schools was expanded throughout the empire. German firms played a particularly significant role in aiding the development of the Empire's vital railway and telegraph systems, showcasing international collaboration in modernization. However, this extensive modernization, particularly the reliance on foreign loans and expertise, came at a steep price: the Empire's economic sovereignty eventually fell under the effective control of the Great Powers through the establishment of the Ottoman Public Debt Administration.

Controversies, Opposition, and Deposition

Abdul Hamid II's reign is also tragically remembered for the massacres of Armenians and Assyrians that occurred between 1894 and 1896, events that continue to be a deeply contentious and painful part of Ottoman history. His rule was frequently threatened, with numerous attempts made on his life. Among the most infamous was the Yıldız assassination attempt of 1905, orchestrated by the Armenian Revolutionary Federation, which highlighted the intense opposition he faced from various nationalist and revolutionary groups.

Large segments of the Ottoman intelligentsia also vehemently criticized and opposed his rule, particularly due to his extensive use of a secret police force to stifle dissent and his suppression of nascent democratic movements, including the Young Turks. This opposition culminated in the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, when a secret revolutionary organization known as the Committee of Union and Progress successfully compelled Abdul Hamid II to recall the parliament and reinstate the long-suspended constitution. In a final attempt to reassert his absolute power a year later, Abdul Hamid II triggered an event known as the 31 March Incident in 1909, which ultimately led to his deposition by Unionist forces, marking the effective end of the Sultan's absolute rule and a significant turning point for the Ottoman Empire.

Frequently Asked Questions About Sultans and Abdul Hamid II

What is the origin of the word "Sultan"?
The word "Sultan" originates from an Arabic abstract noun meaning "strength," "authority," or "rulership." It is derived from the verbal noun sulṭah, meaning "authority" or "power," before it evolved into a title for rulers.
How does a "Sultan" differ from a "King"?
Traditionally, the title "Sultan" is used exclusively in Muslim countries and often carries religious significance within an Islamic context, implying a specific type of authority. In contrast, "King" is a more universally used title for sovereign rulers, found in both Muslim and non-Muslim countries, and generally carries a more secular connotation today.
Are there still Sultans in power today?
Yes, the title "Sultan" is still used by several contemporary hereditary rulers, particularly in certain Muslim-majority nations. For example, the Sultan of Brunei is a well-known sovereign ruler today, and some Malaysian states are still headed by Sultans who serve as constitutional monarchs.
Who was Abdul Hamid II?
Abdul Hamid II was the 34th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, reigning from 1876 to 1909. He is historically significant as the last Sultan to exert effective control over the empire, presiding over a period of both modernization and decline, marked by authoritarianism, significant reforms, and major internal and external conflicts.
What was the "Hamidian Era"?
The "Hamidian Era" refers to the period of Abdul Hamid II's reign (1876-1909). It was characterized by efforts to modernize the Ottoman state and its infrastructure, alongside a move towards autocratic rule after he suspended the constitution, and ongoing internal strife and external pressures on the empire.
Why was Abdul Hamid II deposed?
Abdul Hamid II was deposed following the 31 March Incident in 1909, which was a counter-revolutionary attempt to reassert his absolute power after the Young Turk Revolution of 1908 had forced him to reinstate the constitution and parliament. Unionist forces, representing the Committee of Union and Progress and the Young Turks, suppressed this uprising and subsequently removed him from power.