Xerox PARC introduces the computer mouse.
The Genesis of Digital Innovation: Palo Alto Research Center (PARC)
The Palo Alto Research Center, widely known as PARC and formerly recognized as Xerox PARC, stands as a pivotal research and development company situated in the vibrant technological hub of Palo Alto, California. Its inception in 1969 was spearheaded by Jacob E. "Jack" Goldman, then chief scientist of the Xerox Corporation. Initially conceived as a dedicated division of Xerox, PARC's ambitious mandate was to pioneer and develop cutting-edge computer technology-related products and hardware systems, aiming to define the future of digital interaction.
Over the decades, Xerox PARC became an unparalleled crucible of innovation, fundamentally reshaping the landscape of modern computing. Its illustrious legacy includes being at the very heart of numerous revolutionary developments that we now take for granted. These groundbreaking contributions encompass the invention of laser printing, which transformed document creation; Ethernet, the foundational technology for local area networks; and the very concept of the modern personal computer. Furthermore, PARC was instrumental in developing the graphical user interface (GUI) and desktop paradigm, which moved computing from command-line interfaces to intuitive, visually driven interactions, making computers accessible to the masses. Other seminal advancements include object-oriented programming, a powerful approach to software design; the vision of ubiquitous computing, where technology seamlessly integrates into daily life; and early work on electronic paper and amorphous silicon (a-Si) applications. Crucially, the computer mouse, a ubiquitous pointing device, and foundational research in very-large-scale integration (VLSI) for semiconductors also originated from PARC's fertile environment.
This innovative drive set PARC apart from Xerox's existing research laboratory in Rochester, New York. While the Rochester facility diligently focused on refining and expanding the company's core copier business, Goldman’s visionary “Advanced Scientific & Systems Laboratory” (as PARC was initially known internally) was deliberately established to push the boundaries of knowledge, pioneering new technologies across advanced physics, materials science, and particularly computer science applications, far beyond the scope of Xerox's traditional products.
PARC Today: A Wholly-Owned Subsidiary Pushing Future Frontiers
In a significant strategic move in 2002, Xerox Corporation spun off its pioneering research arm, establishing Palo Alto Research Center Incorporated as a wholly owned subsidiary. This allowed PARC to broaden its collaborative efforts and research initiatives while maintaining its legacy of deep scientific exploration.
Today, PARC continues its legacy of multidisciplinary innovation, with its research areas spanning a broad spectrum of disciplines. These encompass both tangible hardware and sophisticated software, alongside critical insights from the social sciences and innovative design principles. Current research frontiers include, but are not limited to:
- Ubiquitous sensing: Developing pervasive sensor technologies for a connected world.
- Electrochemical energy systems: Advancing the next generation of batteries and energy storage solutions.
- Material deposition systems: Innovations in creating and applying materials with precision.
- Polymeric and composite materials: Research into advanced plastics and combined materials.
- Semiconductor materials: Exploring new properties and applications for electronic components.
- Printing for manufacturing: Utilizing printing techniques for industrial-scale production.
- Optical sensors and microsystems: Developing miniature optical and mechanical components.
- Printed and hybrid electronics: Integrating electronics into various substrates.
- Large-area thin-film electronics: Creating flexible and transparent electronic systems.
- Optoelectronic devices: Technologies combining optics and electronics.
- User experience design: Crafting intuitive and effective human-computer interactions.
- Systems security: Protecting complex digital and physical systems.
- System prognosis and health management: Predictive maintenance and operational health monitoring.
- Modeling and simulation of cyber-physical systems: Creating virtual representations of integrated digital and physical processes.
- Interactive machine learning: Developing AI that learns and adapts through human input.
- Human-machine collaboration: Enhancing synergy between people and intelligent systems.
- Geometric and spatial reasoning: AI understanding of shapes, positions, and relationships in space.
- Data science: Extracting insights and knowledge from complex datasets.
- Conversational agents: Creating intelligent interfaces for natural human-computer dialogue.
- Computer vision and image synthesis: Enabling machines to "see" and generate images.
The Humble Computer Mouse: An Icon of Interaction
The computer mouse, known scientifically as a hand-held pointing device (with its plural forms being mice or, less commonly, mouses), is an indispensable tool that detects two-dimensional motion relative to a physical surface. This subtle movement, whether across a desk or a specialized pad, is then seamlessly translated into the corresponding motion of a pointer or cursor on a digital display. This elegant mechanism provides users with smooth, intuitive control over a computer's graphical user interface, a pivotal development that made computing far more accessible and user-friendly.
The public first witnessed the revolutionary potential of a mouse controlling a computer system in 1968, marking a significant milestone in human-computer interaction. Early iterations of the mouse ingeniously employed two separate wheels – one dedicated to tracking movement along the X-axis (horizontal) and the other for the Y-axis (vertical) – to record motion across a surface. As technology progressed, the standard design evolved, shifting to utilize a ball that rolled against internal rollers, converting its movement into digital signals.
Today, the vast majority of modern mice have embraced optical sensor technology. These advanced devices boast no moving parts, relying instead on light-emitting diodes (LEDs) or lasers to illuminate the surface and a tiny camera to capture images of that surface, detecting subtle changes in texture and pattern to infer motion. This innovation significantly enhanced durability and precision. While originally all mice were tethered to a computer by a physical cable, many contemporary models are cordless. These wireless mice leverage short-range radio communication, often via a USB dongle, to connect seamlessly with the host system, offering greater freedom of movement and a decluttered workspace.
Beyond merely navigating a cursor, computer mice are equipped with one or more buttons, which are crucial for executing operations such as selecting menu items, opening files, or dragging elements on a display. Furthermore, modern mice often incorporate a range of additional interactive elements to enhance functionality. These can include integrated touch surfaces for gesture control, scroll wheels for effortless vertical navigation through documents and web pages, and even additional side buttons or tilt wheels, providing a richer array of dimensional input and control options for users.
Frequently Asked Questions About PARC and the Computer Mouse
- What does PARC stand for?
- PARC stands for Palo Alto Research Center. It was formerly known as Xerox PARC.
- When and by whom was PARC founded?
- PARC was founded in 1969 by Jacob E. "Jack" Goldman, who was the chief scientist of Xerox Corporation at the time.
- What were some of PARC's most significant contributions to technology?
- PARC is credited with numerous revolutionary developments, including laser printing, Ethernet, the modern personal computer concept, the graphical user interface (GUI) and desktop paradigm, object-oriented programming, the computer mouse, and very-large-scale integration (VLSI) for semiconductors, among others.
- Is PARC still part of Xerox?
- No, in 2002, Xerox spun off Palo Alto Research Center Incorporated as a wholly owned subsidiary, allowing it to operate more independently while maintaining its research focus.
- What is a computer mouse used for?
- A computer mouse is a hand-held pointing device used to detect two-dimensional motion, which is then translated into the movement of a pointer or cursor on a display, enabling smooth control of a computer's graphical user interface.
- How has the technology of the computer mouse evolved?
- The computer mouse evolved from early designs using two separate wheels to a ball-based mechanism, and now predominantly uses optical sensors with no moving parts. Connectivity also progressed from wired connections to modern cordless radio communication.
- What additional features do modern computer mice often have?
- Besides the basic pointer movement and primary buttons, modern mice frequently include scroll wheels for navigation, touch surfaces for gesture control, and additional programmable buttons to offer enhanced control and input capabilities.