Juan de Oñate makes a formal declaration of his Conquest of New Mexico.

Juan de Oñate y Salazar (1550–1626) was a prominent figure in the Spanish colonization of the Americas, known for his roles as a conquistador, explorer, and the first colonial governor of the province of Santa Fe de Nuevo México. Born in New Spain, a vast viceroyalty of the Spanish Empire that encompassed much of modern-day Mexico and parts of the United States, Oñate hailed from a wealthy and influential family deeply intertwined with the conquest of Mexico; his father, Cristóbal de Oñate, was a significant silver mine owner and a conquistador, and his wife, Isabel de Tolosa Cortés Moctezuma, was a descendant of Hernán Cortés and the Aztec emperor Moctezuma Xocoyotzin. This powerful lineage provided him with the connections and resources necessary to undertake ambitious expeditions into the northern frontiers of New Spain.

The Expedition into New Mexico

In 1598, Oñate led a large-scale expedition, sanctioned by King Philip II of Spain, northward from Zacatecas, New Spain, into the largely unexplored territories that would become Santa Fe de Nuevo México. His primary objectives were multifaceted: to establish a new viceregal province, locate rumored rich silver mines akin to those found further south, spread Catholicism among the indigenous populations, and assert Spanish sovereignty over the vast and diverse lands now comprising the Southwestern United States. Along the way, his forces traversed the arid landscapes of the Great Plains and journeyed through the fertile Lower Colorado River Valley, encountering numerous indigenous tribes such as the Pueblo, Apache, Navajo, and Ute peoples, often asserting Spanish claims to their ancestral homelands through a blend of diplomacy and military might. He established initial settlements, laying the groundwork for what would become a complex and often turbulent colonial presence in the region.

The Acoma Massacre of 1599

Oñate's legacy is indelibly marked by the tragic events of the Acoma Massacre in 1599, a dark chapter in the history of Spanish colonization. The conflict began in December 1598 when a detachment of Oñate's men, led by his nephew Juan de Zaldívar, arrived at Acoma Pueblo, a Sky City built atop a towering mesa, renowned for its formidable defensive position. Accounts vary, but it appears a dispute over provisions, perhaps exacerbated by cultural misunderstandings and Spanish demands, escalated into a violent confrontation. The Ácoma warriors, feeling their sovereignty and resources threatened, ambushed the Spaniards, resulting in the deaths of thirteen of Oñate's men, including Zaldívar. This act of resistance, while understandable from the Ácoma perspective, provoked a swift and brutal reprisal from Oñate. In January 1599, Oñate dispatched a punitive expedition, led by Vicente de Zaldívar (Juan's brother), to Acoma. After several days of intense fighting, the Spanish forces overwhelmed the Ácoma defenses, storming the Pueblo. The ensuing massacre led to the destruction of the ancient settlement and the deaths of an estimated 800 to 1,000 Ácoma people, a devastating blow to one of the oldest continuously inhabited communities in North America.

The Aftermath and Oñate's Judgment

The aftermath of the Acoma Massacre saw Oñate impose a harsh and controversial judgment on the surviving Ácoma. Approximately 500 people remained, and a trial was conducted at Ohkay Owingeh (then known as San Juan Pueblo, Oñate’s temporary capital). Oñate sentenced most of the survivors to twenty years of forced "personal servitude," a form of slavery where they were distributed among Spanish colonial households. For all Ácoma men over the age of twenty-five, he mandated a particularly gruesome punishment: the amputation of a foot. This act, intended as a stark warning against resistance, has been a central point of historical contention. While the traditional narrative often speaks of full foot removal, recent scholarly research, including examination of Oñate’s personal journal, suggests a different interpretation. In his own writings, Oñate refers to the punishment as cutting off "las puntas del pie," which translates more accurately to "the points of the foot" or "the toes." This latter theory, that only toes or parts of the foot were amputated, aligns with a more pragmatic, albeit still brutal, colonial logic: preserving the prisoners' ability to walk and work as servants, rather than rendering them completely incapacitated. Regardless of the exact extent of the amputations, the punishment was unequivocally cruel and had a profound psychological impact on the Ácoma people.

Oñate's actions at Acoma eventually led to his own downfall. The Spanish Crown, while initially supporting colonial expansion, also sought to maintain a semblance of order and legality. Following numerous complaints and investigations into his administration, including charges of mismanaging funds, mistreating both indigenous peoples and Spanish colonists, and excessive use of force, Oñate was recalled from his governorship in 1606. In 1614, he was convicted by the Spanish government for his misconduct, specifically for using "excessive force" against the Acoma people. As a result, he was banished from New Mexico permanently and exiled from Mexico for a period of five years. Although he later served in Spain as a mining inspector, his colonial career ended in disgrace.

A Contested Legacy: Oñate in Modern Memory

Today, Juan de Oñate remains an intensely controversial and divisive figure in the history of New Mexico and the broader Southwestern United States. For some, he represents the pioneering spirit of exploration and the founder of European settlement in the region, a complex figure who established communities and brought Spanish culture and institutions. For many others, particularly indigenous communities and their allies, he is a brutal symbol of colonial oppression, conquest, and the devastating violence inflicted upon native peoples. This deep division is powerfully illustrated by ongoing public debates and acts of protest surrounding monuments dedicated to him. In 1998, on the 400th anniversary of Oñate's arrival in New Mexico, the right foot of a bronze statue of the conquistador in Alcalde, New Mexico, was cut off by unknown activists, a symbolic act directly referencing the punishment meted out at Acoma. Further controversy erupted in 2006 when a large equestrian statue of Oñate, depicting him on horseback, was erected in El Paso, Texas, sparking protests and calls for its removal or recontextualization. More recently, in the summer of 2020, amidst a broader national reckoning with historical monuments, the statue of Oñate in Alcalde was temporarily removed by Rio Arriba County workers, acting on the direction of local officials. The ultimate fate of this and other Oñate monuments across the region remains a subject of ongoing discussion, with civic institutions, historical societies, and community groups weighing the complexities of historical memory, public representation, and reconciliation. His story continues to serve as a focal point for understanding the enduring impact of colonization and the ongoing struggle for recognition and justice for indigenous peoples.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Who was Juan de Oñate?
Juan de Oñate y Salazar was a Spanish conquistador, explorer, and the first colonial governor of the province of Santa Fe de Nuevo México (modern-day Southwestern U.S.). He led expeditions into the region in the late 16th century.
What was the Acoma Massacre?
The Acoma Massacre was a brutal Spanish retaliation in January 1599 against the Ácoma Pueblo people, following an ambush by Ácoma warriors that killed thirteen Spanish soldiers, including Oñate's nephew. The Spanish forces destroyed the Pueblo and killed an estimated 800 to 1,000 Ácoma people.
What was the punishment for the Acoma survivors?
Oñate sentenced approximately 500 Ácoma survivors to twenty years of forced "personal servitude." For men over the age of twenty-five, he mandated the amputation of "las puntas del pie" (the points of the foot, or toes), a cruel punishment that has been historically debated regarding its exact extent.
Why is Juan de Oñate a controversial figure today?
Oñate remains controversial because, while seen by some as a founder of European settlement, he is viewed by many others, especially indigenous communities, as a symbol of brutal colonization and oppression due to his role in events like the Acoma Massacre and the subsequent harsh punishments. Public monuments of him have been subjects of protest and debate.
What happened to Oñate after the Acoma Massacre?
Oñate was recalled from his governorship, tried, and eventually convicted by the Spanish government for various charges, including using "excessive force" against the Acoma people. He was banished from New Mexico and exiled from Mexico for five years, ending his colonial career in disgrace.