Byzantine Emperor Basiliscus issues a circular letter (Enkyklikon) to the bishops of his empire, supporting the Monophysite christological position.

The fascinating and complex history of the Byzantine Empire, often recognized as the Eastern Roman Empire, conventionally begins with a pivotal moment in 330 AD: the foundation of Constantinople. This magnificent city, built by Emperor Constantine the Great, served as its vibrant capital until its eventual fall to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 AD. Our exploration here focuses on the legitimate emperors who wielded sovereign authority, excluding those junior co-emperors (known as symbasileis) who never attained sole or senior rule, as well as the various usurpers or rebels who merely laid claim to the imperial title.

The journey through these imperial reigns fittingly commences with Constantine the Great. He stands as the first Christian emperor, the visionary who painstakingly rebuilt the ancient city of Byzantium, transforming it into the illustrious imperial capital, Constantinople. Revered by subsequent emperors as the quintessential model ruler, it was under Constantine's transformative leadership that the foundational characteristics of the Byzantine state truly emerged: a Roman polity firmly centered in Constantinople, culturally dominated by the Greek East, and profoundly shaped by Christianity, which became the state religion.

Legally speaking, the Byzantine Empire was the direct continuation of the eastern half of the Roman Empire, following the significant division of the vast Roman realm in 395 AD. Consequently, emperors listed up to Theodosius I in 395 AD were either sole or joint rulers of the entire Roman Empire. While the Western Roman Empire met its definitive end in 476 AD, the Byzantine emperors steadfastly regarded themselves as the rightful Roman emperors, in an unbroken line of succession tracing back to Augustus himself. It is an interesting historical note that the very term "Byzantine" was not adopted by these rulers, but rather coined much later, in the 16th century, by Western historiography. The use of the prestigious title "Roman Emperor" by those governing from Constantinople largely went unchallenged until a critical event in 800 AD: the Papal coronation of the Frankish Charlemagne as the Holy Roman Emperor on Christmas Day. This move was partly a political response to the Byzantine coronation of Empress Irene, whose claim to the imperial throne, as a woman, was deliberately not recognized by Pope Leo III.

In practice, the Byzantine emperor operated within a sophisticated Hellenistic political framework, where he was perceived as having been divinely granted total power by God to shape the state and its subjects. He served as the ultimate authority and legislator of the empire, with all his endeavors understood as an imitation of God's sacred kingdom. Furthermore, in alignment with Christian principles, the emperor was considered the ultimate benefactor and protector of his people, a living embodiment of justice and divine will on earth.

The Tumultuous Reign of Flavius Basiliscus (475-476 AD)

Amidst the complex tapestry of the late 5th century Eastern Roman Empire, one figure whose brief but impactful reign stands out is Flavius Basiliscus (died 476/477 AD). He held the imperial title as Eastern Roman emperor from January 9, 475, to August 476 AD. Basiliscus's career began with some prominence, as he became magister militum per Thracias (master of soldiers for Thrace) in 464 AD, serving under his brother-in-law, Emperor Leo I (reigned 457–474 AD).

The Disastrous Vandalic Expedition of 468 AD

Basiliscus's name is notably linked to one of the most catastrophic military failures in Eastern Roman history: the grand invasion of the Vandal Kingdom in 468 AD. Tasked with commanding this enormous army, Basiliscus suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Cape Bon. At the time, whispers and accusations suggested that Basiliscus had been bribed by Aspar, the powerful magister militum. However, many modern historians tend to dismiss these claims, instead concluding that Basiliscus was either profoundly incompetent or remarkably foolish for accepting an offer of a truce from the wily Vandal King Gaiseric. Gaiseric, a master of deception, cleverly exploited this truce to construct his devastating fireships, which he then unleashed upon the Roman fleet. This monumental defeat cost the Eastern Empire an staggering 130,000 pounds (approximately 59,000 kg) of gold, an economic blow so severe that it left the empire hovering precariously on the brink of bankruptcy for the next three decades. Upon his inglorious return to Constantinople, Basiliscus sought sanctuary in the sacred confines of the Church of St. Sophia. His influential sister, Empress Verina, interceded on his behalf, securing him a pardon, after which he departed the church to retire in the city of Neapolis.

A Path to the Throne Through Conspiracy

The political landscape of 474 AD proved highly unstable. When Emperor Leo I passed away, his young grandson, Leo II (reigned 474 AD), briefly took power but succumbed shortly thereafter. This paved the way for Leo II's father, Zeno (reigned 474–475, 476–491 AD), to ascend the throne in the same year, though his position remained politically precarious. It was amidst this volatile environment that Empress Verina, ever the schemer, conspired to install her lover, the magister officiorum Patricius, as emperor. Basiliscus, sensing an opportunity for personal gain, readily supported this plot. He skillfully recruited the influential Isaurian brothers Illus and Trocundes, along with Verina’s own nephew, Armatus, into their conspiracy. On January 9, 475 AD, Zeno was forced to flee Constantinople, either upon discovering the plot or after receiving a crucial warning from Verina herself that his life was in grave danger. Despite Patricius being Verina’s original choice, Basiliscus shrewdly convinced the Eastern Roman Senate to acclaim him as emperor instead, thus seizing the imperial purple for himself.

The Downfall: Taxes, Heresy, and Betrayal

Basiliscus's brief reign was marked by a rapid decline in popular support. A combination of crushing new taxes, highly controversial theological policies (perceived as heretical by many), and a devastating natural disaster — which the populace interpreted as divine wrath for his religious views — quickly alienated the people of Constantinople. In a desperate attempt to shore up his support, he embraced the Miaphysites, a theological faction, and restored their prominent figures: Timothy Ailuros as the Patriarch of Alexandria and Peter the Fuller as Patriarch of Antioch. Heeding their advice, Basiliscus issued an encyclical on April 9, 475 AD, which reaffirmed the first three ecumenical councils of the church (Nicaea, Constantinople, and Ephesus) but controversially condemned the Council of Chalcedon and the important theological text known as the Tome of Leo. This move immediately sparked fierce opposition from the highly influential Patriarch Acacius of Constantinople, who, together with the revered ascetic Daniel the Stylite, successfully turned the vast population of Constantinople against Basiliscus.

Compounding his woes, Basiliscus quickly began to lose his vital allies. Empress Verina abandoned him almost immediately, largely as a consequence of his ill-advised execution of Patricius, her former lover. Illus and Trocundes, who were at the time besieging Zeno in his homeland of Isauria, were skillfully convinced by Zeno to defect to his side. Soon, these newly reconciled forces, along with Zeno, began to march their troops toward the capital. Upon receiving this dire news, Basiliscus dispatched Armatus, his nephew, with a contingent of troops to intercept them. However, Armatus, seeing which way the political winds were blowing, betrayed Basiliscus. Zeno had promised Armatus the coveted position of magister militum praesentalis for life, and crucially, that Armatus's son, also named Basiliscus, would be elevated to the prestigious title of Caesar. With this enticing offer, Armatus cunningly directed his army away from Zeno's path, allowing the exiled emperor to re-enter Constantinople unopposed in August 476 AD. Basiliscus and his family sought final refuge in a church, hoping to avoid retribution. Zeno, making a promise not to execute them, instead exiled them to Limnae in Cappadocia. There, their tragic end arrived: they were either beheaded or, more chillingly, imprisoned in a dried-up cistern and left to starve to death, a grim conclusion to a reign defined by ambition and misjudgment.

Frequently Asked Questions About the Byzantine Empire and Emperor Basiliscus

What exactly was the Byzantine Empire?
The Byzantine Empire was the eastern continuation of the Roman Empire after the division in 395 AD. It was centered in Constantinople, culturally dominated by the Greek East, and had Christianity as its state religion. Its inhabitants consistently referred to themselves as Romans.
When did the Byzantine Empire begin and end?
The Byzantine Empire conventionally began with the foundation of Constantinople in 330 AD and concluded with the city's fall to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 AD.
Who is considered the first Byzantine Emperor?
Constantine the Great is widely regarded as the first Byzantine emperor, having founded Constantinople and laid many of the state's defining characteristics.
Why is it called the "Byzantine" Empire if its rulers called themselves "Roman Emperors"?
The term "Byzantine" was a retrospective creation by Western historiography in the 16th century. The emperors and their subjects viewed themselves as the direct and legitimate successors of the Roman Empire, ruling from what they considered the "New Rome," Constantinople.
What was the nature of the Byzantine Emperor's power?
In theory and practice, the Byzantine emperor held total power, believed to be divinely sanctioned by God. He was the ultimate authority, legislator, and the supreme protector and benefactor of his people, tasked with imitating God's sacred kingdom on Earth.
Who was Flavius Basiliscus?
Flavius Basiliscus was an Eastern Roman emperor who reigned briefly from January 475 to August 476 AD. He was a prominent military figure before his usurpation of the throne.
What was Basiliscus's most notable military failure?
His most significant military failure was commanding the disastrous invasion of the Vandal Kingdom in 468 AD, which resulted in a devastating defeat at the Battle of Cape Bon and cost the empire immense wealth and resources.
How did Basiliscus become emperor?
Basiliscus seized power through a conspiracy orchestrated by his sister, Empress Verina, against Emperor Zeno. He leveraged his allies and influence to convince the Senate to acclaim him emperor instead of Verina's initial choice.
Why did Basiliscus lose public support so quickly?
His swift decline in popularity was due to heavy taxation, controversial religious policies that alienated the Orthodox population (particularly his condemnation of the Council of Chalcedon), and an unfortunate natural disaster perceived as divine punishment.
How did Basiliscus's reign end?
Basiliscus was betrayed by key allies, including his nephew Armatus, who allowed Emperor Zeno to return to Constantinople unopposed. Basiliscus and his family were captured, exiled to Cappadocia, and ultimately perished, likely from starvation in a dried-up cistern.