The Iraqi regime of Saddam Hussein kills philosopher Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr and his sister Bint al-Huda after three days of torture.

Nestled in the heart of Western Asia, Iraq, officially known as the Republic of Iraq, boasts a heritage as rich and ancient as civilization itself. Its name resonates through history, from the Arabic الْعِرَاق (al-ʿIrāq) to the Kurdish عێراق (Êraq), reflecting its dual linguistic roots. This strategically vital nation shares its borders with a tapestry of countries: Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, the shimmering Persian Gulf and Kuwait to the southeast, Saudi Arabia to the south, Jordan to the southwest, and Syria to the west. Baghdad, its bustling capital and largest metropolis, stands as a testament to Iraq's enduring legacy.

Iraq is a remarkable mosaic of cultures, home to a multitude of ethnic groups that have coexisted for millennia. Among them are Arabs, Kurds, Turkmens, Assyrians, Armenians, Yazidis, Persians, Shabakis, Sabian-Mandaeans, Circassians, and Kawliya. This human diversity mirrors the country's varied geography, which spans from vast deserts to fertile plains, supporting a unique array of wildlife. While the majority of Iraq's approximately 40 million citizens adhere to Islam, the nation officially recognizes and protects other faiths, including Christianity, Yarsanism, Yezidism, Zoroastrianism, and Mandaeism, showcasing a commitment to religious pluralism. Arabic and Kurdish stand as Iraq's official languages, while English, Neo-Aramaic, Turkish, and Armenian are recognized as important regional languages, reflecting the country's profound cultural depth.

The Cradle of Civilization: A Legacy Forged in Mesopotamia

Stepping back into antiquity, the lands that form present-day Iraq were revered as Mesopotamia, a name meaning "Land Between the Rivers," referring to the life-giving Tigris and Euphrates. These extensive alluvial plains, nourished by the annual floods of the great rivers, provided an unprecedented agricultural abundance that laid the foundation for some of the world’s earliest and most influential civilizations. Dating back to the 6th millennium BC, this region witnessed the rise and fall of powerful empires, including Sumer – widely acknowledged as the earliest known civilization – followed by Akkad, Babylon, and Assyria. It is no exaggeration to call this area the "Cradle of Civilization," as it was here that humanity made monumental leaps forward. This fertile crescent gave birth to revolutionary inventions and discoveries that profoundly shaped human development: the very first writing systems, foundational principles of mathematics, the concept of time, the creation of calendars, early advancements in astrology, and the codification of laws. Indeed, it was within these ancient cities, most notably Uruk, that humankind first began to read, write, establish intricate legal frameworks, and organize sophisticated governments, laying the groundwork for urban living as we know it today.

From Islamic Golden Age to Modern Challenges

Following the significant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia, Baghdad ascended to prominence, becoming the illustrious capital and largest city of the mighty Abbasid Caliphate. During the resplendent era known as the Islamic Golden Age, Baghdad blossomed into an unparalleled global hub for culture and intellect. It garnered a worldwide reputation, particularly for its academic institutions, most famously the House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikma), which served as a grand library, translation institute, and academy. Here, scholars from diverse backgrounds gathered to translate, preserve, and advance knowledge in fields ranging from astronomy and medicine to mathematics and philosophy. However, this golden age met a tragic end in 1258, when the city was largely devastated by the Mongol Empire during the brutal Siege of Baghdad. This catastrophic event initiated a prolonged period of decline for Iraq, exacerbated by frequent plagues and the successive rule of various empires over many centuries.

The contours of Modern Iraq began to take shape in 1920. In the aftermath of the Ottoman Empire's collapse, the British Mandate of Mesopotamia was established under the authority of the League of Nations, consolidating three former Ottoman provinces (vilayets) into a single entity. Just a year later, in 1921, a British-backed Kingdom of Iraq was founded, with Faisal I enthroned as its first monarch. The Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq eventually achieved full independence from the United Kingdom in 1932. However, this monarchy was overthrown in a military coup in 1958, leading to the establishment of the Iraqi Republic. From 1968 until 2003, Iraq was under the firm control of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party, a period marked by significant political shifts and authoritarian rule. A particularly devastating chapter unfolded in 1980 when Iraq invaded Iran, igniting a protracted and brutal war that lasted for nearly eight years. This conflict ultimately ended in a stalemate, but not before inflicting catastrophic losses in human lives and resources on both nations.

The early 21st century brought further upheaval. In 2003, a multinational force led by the United States invaded Iraq, resulting in the removal of Saddam Hussein's Ba'ath Party from power. This pivotal event paved the way for multi-party parliamentary elections in 2005, aiming to establish a new democratic framework. While the main U.S. military presence in Iraq concluded in 2011, the country continued to grapple with an evolving insurgency, which intensified as fighters from the Syrian civil war spilled across its borders. A significant turning point came on December 9, 2017, when then-Iraqi Prime Minister Haider al-Abadi triumphantly declared victory over ISIL (Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant), announcing the complete liberation of Iraq's borders with Syria from the grip of the extremist militants. Nevertheless, remnants of ISIL continue to conduct an ongoing insurgency within the country, posing persistent security challenges.

Governance, International Standing, and Political Landscape

Today, Iraq operates as a federal parliamentary republic, structured to ensure a balance of power. The President serves as the ceremonial head of state, embodying the nation's unity, while the Prime Minister holds the executive reins as the head of government, responsible for daily administration and policy implementation. The Iraqi constitution establishes two deliberative legislative bodies: the Council of Representatives, which functions as the main legislative assembly, and the Council of Union, representing the regions. Crucially, the judiciary is designed to be free and independent, operating distinctly from both the executive and legislative branches, a cornerstone of its democratic aspirations.

Internationally, Iraq is increasingly recognized as an emerging middle power, strategically located at a geopolitical crossroads and possessing significant natural resources, particularly oil. It holds a proud record as a founding member of numerous influential global and regional organizations, including the United Nations, the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), the Arab League, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), the Non-Aligned Movement, and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Since gaining its independence, Iraq's intricate political history has been a dynamic blend of periods witnessing remarkable economic and military growth, interspersed with challenging times of profound political and economic instability, reflecting its complex journey as a modern nation.

A Profile of Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr

Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr (Arabic: ; March 1, 1935 – April 9, 1980), often honored as al-Shahid al-Khamis (the fifth martyr), was a pivotal Iraqi philosopher and theologian whose intellectual contributions profoundly shaped modern Shi'a thought. Born in al-Kadhimiya, Iraq, a city revered for its holy shrines, he emerged as the ideological founder of the influential Islamic Dawa Party. His family lineage placed him within one of Iraq's most prominent clerical families; he was notably the father-in-law to Muqtada al-Sadr, a cousin to Muhammad Sadeq al-Sadr, and a relative of Imam Musa as-Sadr. His own father, Haydar al-Sadr, was a highly respected, high-ranking Shi'a cleric, further cementing the family's esteemed position within the religious hierarchy. Tracing his ancestry through the revered Seventh Shi'a Imam, Musa al-Kazim, back to the Prophet Muhammad himself, Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr possessed a lineage of immense spiritual significance. Tragically, his intellectual influence and political activism led to his execution in 1980 by the regime of Saddam Hussein, a stark example of the era's brutal repression against dissenting Shi'a voices, along with his devoted sister, Amina Sadr bint al-Huda.

FAQs About Iraq and its History

What is the official name of Iraq?
Officially, Iraq is known as the Republic of Iraq (Arabic: جُمْهُورِيَّة ٱلْعِرَاق Jumhūriīyah al-ʿIrāq; Kurdish: کۆماری عێراق Komarî Êraq).
What is Mesopotamia and why is it significant?
Mesopotamia, meaning "Land Between the Rivers" (Tigris and Euphrates), refers to the ancient region corresponding to modern-day Iraq. It is considered the "Cradle of Civilization" because it was the birthplace of some of the world's earliest civilizations, writing systems, mathematics, and urban living.
What are the official languages of Iraq?
The two official languages of Iraq are Arabic and Kurdish. Other recognized regional languages include English, Neo-Aramaic, Turkish, and Armenian.
When did Modern Iraq gain independence?
The Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq gained full independence from the United Kingdom in 1932, after being established as a British Mandate in 1920.
What kind of government does Iraq have today?
Iraq is a federal parliamentary republic, where the President is the head of state and the Prime Minister is the head of government.
Who was Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr?
Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr was a prominent Iraqi philosopher and the ideological founder of the Islamic Dawa Party. He was a highly respected Shi'a cleric, known for his intellectual contributions, and was tragically executed by Saddam Hussein's regime in 1980.
What are some of Iraq's diverse ethnic groups?
Iraq is home to a rich tapestry of ethnic groups, including Arabs, Kurds, Turkmens, Assyrians, Armenians, Yazidis, Persians, Shabakis, Sabian-Mandaeans, Circassians, and Kawliya.