Iraq War: Baghdad falls to American forces; Iraqis turn on symbols of their former leader Saddam Hussein, pulling down a grand statue of him and tearing it to pieces.

The Iraq War, a protracted armed conflict that significantly shaped the early 21st century, spanned from 2003 to 2011. It commenced with a large-scale invasion of Iraq by a United States-led coalition, an operation that swiftly toppled the long-standing authoritarian government of Saddam Hussein. However, the initial victory marked only the beginning of a far more complex and enduring struggle. Following the invasion, an intense insurgency emerged, fiercely opposing both the coalition forces and the newly established Iraqi government. This period of conflict persisted for much of the subsequent decade, drawing the United States into a prolonged military engagement. While official US troop withdrawal concluded in 2011, the nation found itself re-involved in 2014, leading a new coalition to address the ongoing instability, where elements of the insurgency and various dimensions of armed conflict regrettably continue to this day.

The invasion of Iraq was initially framed by the George W. Bush administration as a crucial component of its broader "War on Terror," a global campaign launched in the aftermath of the devastating September 11 attacks. Yet, a significant point of contention arose from the outset: there was no verifiable connection established between Saddam Hussein's regime and the perpetrators of the 9/11 attacks. Nevertheless, in October 2002, the US Congress granted President Bush the authority to decide on military action in Iraq. The war officially began on March 20, 2003, with a powerful "shock and awe" bombing campaign spearheaded by the United States, joined by key allies including the United Kingdom, Australia, and Poland. Iraqi forces, though formidable, were rapidly overwhelmed by the coalition's advanced military capabilities, which swept across the country with considerable speed.

This swift invasion led directly to the collapse of Iraq's ruling Ba'athist government. Saddam Hussein, the enigmatic leader who had governed Iraq with an iron fist for decades, was captured during Operation Red Dawn in December of the same year and subsequently executed three years later following a trial. However, Saddam's removal created a dangerous power vacuum. This, coupled with significant mismanagement by the Coalition Provisional Authority—the transitional administration established by the coalition—unintentionally fueled widespread civil conflict between Iraq's historically prominent Sunni minority and its majority Shia population. Simultaneously, a tenacious insurgency arose, targeting coalition forces and the burgeoning Iraqi government. Many of these violent insurgent groups received external backing, with some predominantly Shia militias supported by Iran, while others, primarily Sunni, like al-Qaeda in Iraq, often received support from other factions, further complicating the already volatile landscape. In response to the escalating violence and instability, the United States executed a substantial troop "surge" in 2007, deploying an additional 170,000 personnel. This strategic build-up was largely credited with granting greater control to Iraq's government and military and was widely regarded as a tactical success in restoring some semblance of order. By 2008, President Bush had agreed to a phased withdrawal of all US combat troops from Iraq, a process ultimately completed under President Barack Obama in December 2011.

The primary rationale presented by the United States for initiating the invasion was centered on assertions that Iraq possessed an active weapons of mass destruction (WMD) program and posed an imminent threat to the United States and its allies. Furthermore, some US officials made unsubstantiated claims, falsely accusing Saddam Hussein of harboring and actively supporting al-Qaeda. However, these foundational claims were later debunked. A comprehensive investigation by the 9/11 Commission in 2004 concluded unequivocally that there was no credible evidence of any operational relationship between Saddam's regime and al-Qaeda. More critically, despite intensive searches, no stockpiles of WMDs or an active WMD program were ever discovered in Iraq. Numerous claims made by Bush administration officials regarding a purported Saddam–al-Qaeda connection and WMDs were subsequently revealed to be based on tenuous evidence that had often been rejected by intelligence officials. This contentious rationale for war faced immense criticism, both domestically within the United States and internationally. Kofi Annan, then the Secretary-General of the United Nations, publicly declared the invasion illegal under international law, citing its violation of the UN Charter. A significant British inquiry, the 2016 Chilcot Report, thoroughly investigated the United Kingdom's decision to participate in the war. Its damning conclusions included that not all peaceful alternatives had been adequately explored, that the UK and US had undermined the United Nations Security Council in the process of declaring war, and that the legal basis for the war was "far from satisfactory." Ultimately, the report concluded that, when all factors were considered, the war was unnecessary. Adding another layer to these findings, Saddam Hussein himself, when interrogated by the FBI after his capture, confirmed that Iraq did not possess weapons of mass destruction prior to the US invasion.

In the aftermath of the initial invasion and the subsequent establishment of a new political framework, Iraq held its first multi-party elections in 2005, marking a tentative step towards democratic governance. Nouri al-Maliki emerged as Prime Minister in 2006, serving until 2014. However, his government's policies frequently alienated the country's once-dominant Sunni minority, thereby exacerbating existing sectarian tensions and creating a fertile ground for future conflict. In the summer of 2014, the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIL), a ruthless extremist group, launched a major military offensive across northern Iraq and controversially declared a worldwide Islamic caliphate. This alarming development prompted another military response from the United States and its allies, known as Operation Inherent Resolve, aimed at countering ISIL's expansion. The long-term geopolitical consequences of the Iraq War are still unfolding. According to a 2019 US Army study, Iran, a long-standing regional rival, has strategically emerged as "the only victor" of the conflict, significantly expanding its influence in the region. The human cost of the Iraq War has been devastating. Estimates indicate that between 151,000 and 1,033,000 Iraqis perished in the first three to five years of the conflict. In total, the war directly caused at least one hundred thousand civilian deaths, alongside tens of thousands of military fatalities. The majority of these tragic deaths occurred during the most intense period of the insurgency and civil conflicts between 2004 and 2007. Furthermore, the subsequent War in Iraq from 2013 to 2017, widely considered a direct domino effect of the initial invasion and occupation, resulted in at least 155,000 additional deaths and the displacement of more than 3.3 million people within the country, fundamentally reshaping Iraqi society and its demographic landscape.

Baghdad: A Historical and Modern Tapestry

Baghdad, the vibrant capital of Iraq, stands as the second-largest city in the Arab world, trailing only Cairo in population. Strategically located on the banks of the mighty Tigris River, it is nestled near the historical ruins of ancient Akkadian cities like Babylon and the Sassanid Persian capital of Ctesiphon, a testament to the region's deep historical roots. In 762 CE, Baghdad was meticulously chosen as the capital of the flourishing Abbasid Caliphate, quickly becoming its most ambitious and notable development project. Within a remarkably short span of time, the city transformed into an unparalleled cultural, commercial, and intellectual heartland of the Muslim world. Its diverse and multiethnic, multi-religious environment, coupled with the establishment of several pivotal academic institutions, most notably the illustrious House of Wisdom, earned Baghdad a prestigious worldwide reputation as the "Center of Learning" during the Islamic Golden Age.

During much of the Abbasid era, Baghdad reigned as the largest city in the world, with its population peaking at an impressive figure of over a million inhabitants, a truly monumental metropolis for its time. However, this golden era was brought to a tragic end in 1258 when the city suffered catastrophic destruction at the hands of the Mongol Empire. This devastating event initiated a long and arduous decline that would persist for many centuries, exacerbated by frequent plagues and the successive rule of various empires. With the recognition of Iraq as an independent state in 1932, having formerly been the British Mandate of Mesopotamia, Baghdad gradually began to reclaim some of its former prominence as a significant center of Arab culture. Today, its population is variously estimated at 6 to over 7 million people, a vast number concentrated within a relatively small urban area of just 673 square kilometers (260 sq mi).

Regrettably, modern Baghdad has endured severe infrastructural damage, primarily due to the protracted Iraq War, which began with the United States-led invasion in 2003 and lasted until 2011, followed by a relentless insurgency and renewed conflict that continued until 2017. This tumultuous period resulted in a substantial and lamentable loss of priceless cultural heritage and historical artifacts. During these years of intense conflict, Baghdad tragically recorded some of the highest rates of terrorist attacks globally. Thankfully, the situation has shown considerable improvement; terrorist attacks are now rare and have been in steady decline since the territorial defeat of the Islamic State militant group (ISIL) in Iraq in 2017, allowing the city to slowly begin its process of healing and rebuilding.

Frequently Asked Questions About the Iraq War and Baghdad

What was the primary rationale presented for the 2003 invasion of Iraq?
The main justifications put forth by the United States for the 2003 invasion were claims that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) and posed a threat to the US and its allies. Additionally, some US officials alleged that Saddam Hussein's regime harbored and supported al-Qaeda.
Were the claims of WMDs and links to al-Qaeda ever substantiated?
No. Investigations, including by the 9/11 Commission in 2004, found no evidence of a connection between Saddam Hussein's regime and al-Qaeda. Furthermore, extensive searches after the invasion failed to uncover any stockpiles of WMDs or an active WMD program in Iraq. Intelligence used to support these claims was later deemed unreliable or unsubstantiated.
When did US combat troops officially withdraw from Iraq?
US combat troops were officially withdrawn from Iraq in December 2011, a process completed under President Barack Obama, following an agreement reached during President George W. Bush's administration.
What were some significant consequences of the Iraq War?
The war led to the overthrow of Saddam Hussein, a prolonged insurgency, a civil war between Shia and Sunni factions, and significant regional destabilization. It also resulted in hundreds of thousands of Iraqi deaths, widespread displacement, and considerable damage to infrastructure and cultural heritage. A 2019 US Army study suggested Iran emerged as "the only victor" due to increased regional influence. The subsequent rise of ISIL in 2014 is also considered a direct consequence.
What is the historical significance of Baghdad?
Baghdad was founded in 762 CE as the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate and quickly became the cultural, commercial, and intellectual center of the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age. It housed institutions like the House of Wisdom and was known as the "Center of Learning," boasting a diverse, multiethnic, and multi-religious environment. It was once the largest city in the world.
How has modern Baghdad been affected by recent conflicts?
Baghdad has suffered severe infrastructural damage, a substantial loss of cultural heritage, and historically high rates of terrorist attacks due to the Iraq War (2003-2011) and the subsequent insurgency and renewed conflict (until 2017). However, terrorist attacks have been declining since the territorial defeat of ISIL in 2017.