Events on February 11 in history

The Iranian Revolution establishes an Islamic theocracy under the leadership of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.

The Iranian Revolution: A Transformative Shift and the Birth of the Islamic Republic

The Iranian Revolution, universally recognized by its Persian name Enqelâb-e Irân (انقلاب ایران) or often referred to as the Islamic Revolution (انقلاب اسلامی, Enqelâb-e Eslâmī), represents a series of profound and rapid sociopolitical transformations that fundamentally reshaped Iran. This monumental upheaval culminated in the dramatic overthrow of the millennia-old Persian monarchy, specifically targeting the Pahlavi dynasty led by Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. In a seismic shift, his secular, pro-Western government was replaced by an Islamic republic, a theocratic system under the astute leadership of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, who emerged as a dominant figure among the various factions spearheading the revolt. This revolution garnered support from a diverse coalition, including both secular leftist and deeply religious Islamist organizations, all united in their opposition to the Shah.

The Shah's Reign and the Seeds of Discontent

Following the 1953 Iranian coup d'état—an event orchestrated by the United States and the United Kingdom to restore the Shah's authority and depose the democratically elected Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadegh—Mohammad Reza Pahlavi solidified his power, aligning closely with the United States and the broader Western Bloc. This alliance allowed him to rule with an increasingly firm hand, evolving into an absolute monarch. His reliance on substantial American financial and military support was crucial for maintaining his grip on power, which he held for an additional 26 years after the coup. This period of intensified autocratic rule laid the groundwork for significant domestic unrest. In 1963, the Shah initiated the "White Revolution," a sweeping program of reforms encompassing land redistribution, women's suffrage, and literacy initiatives. While intended to modernize Iran and prevent a communist uprising, these reforms were widely perceived by the traditional clergy and many landowners as an imposition, disrupting established social and economic structures. Ayatollah Khomeini vehemently opposed these reforms, leading to his arrest and subsequent exile in 1964, first to Turkey, then to Iraq, and finally to France, from where he continued to galvanize opposition.

Escalation to Revolution: A Timeline of Unrest

Amidst growing tensions between the Shah's regime and the exiled Ayatollah Khomeini, public demonstrations began to erupt across Iran in October 1977. These initial protests rapidly evolved into a widespread campaign of civil resistance, drawing participation from both secular nationalists and religious elements. The intensity of these protests reached a critical peak in 1978, famously ignited by the tragic burning of the Rex Cinema in Abadan. This horrific event, which killed hundreds, was widely blamed on the Shah's secret police (SAVAK), fueling immense public outrage and serving as a crucial trigger that propelled the revolution forward.

• October 1977: Initial demonstrations begin, often sparked by funeral processions for protesters and religious commemorations.
• 1978: Protests escalate dramatically, marked by mass strikes, marches, and clashes with security forces.
• August 1978: The Rex Cinema fire in Abadan becomes a symbol of the Shah's brutal repression and a rallying point for revolutionaries.
• January 16, 1979: Facing insurmountable pressure and widespread civil unrest, Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi fled Iran into exile. As the last Persian monarch, he left his duties to a regency council and appointed Shapour Bakhtiar, a prominent opposition figure, as prime minister in a last-ditch effort to pacify the populace and preserve the monarchy.
• February 1, 1979: Ayatollah Khomeini, having been invited back to Iran by the provisional government, returned triumphantly to Tehran. He was greeted by an ecstatic crowd of several million Iranians, signaling the impending collapse of the royal government.
• February 11, 1979: The royal reign officially collapsed. Guerrilla fighters and rebel troops overwhelmed forces loyal to the Shah in intense armed street fighting, effectively bringing Khomeini to official power. This day is now celebrated as the victory of the Iranian Revolution.
• April 1, 1979: Iran's transition was formalized when citizens voted overwhelmingly by national referendum to establish an Islamic Republic.
• December 1979: A new theocratic-republican constitution was formulated and approved, officially establishing the office of Supreme Leader. Ayatollah Khomeini assumed this paramount position, becoming the ultimate political and religious authority of the country.

Unusual Characteristics of the Iranian Revolution

The Iranian Revolution distinguished itself from many historical revolutions due to several unique characteristics that surprised the world:

• It lacked many of the customary preconditions for revolution, such as defeat in war, a severe financial crisis, widespread peasant rebellion, or a disgruntled military.
• The revolution occurred in a nation that was experiencing relative economic prosperity, fueled by oil revenues, rather than dire poverty.
• It produced profound political, social, and economic change with remarkable speed.
• The revolution resulted in the exile of a significant number of Iranians, particularly those associated with the former regime or secular ideologies.
• Most notably, it replaced a staunchly pro-Western absolute monarchy with an explicitly anti-Western theocracy, founded on the intricate Islamic concept of velayat-e faqih (Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists).
• Beyond its domestic impact, the revolution aimed for a region-wide Shia revival, challenging and seeking to uproot the existent dominant Arab Sunni hegemony in the Middle East, leading to geopolitical shifts that continue to resonate today.

Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini: Architect of the Islamic Republic

Sayyid Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini (17 May 1900 – 3 June 1989), universally known as Ayatollah Khomeini, was an Iranian political and religious leader who served as the first Supreme Leader of Iran from the establishment of the Islamic Republic in 1979 until his death in 1989. He stands as the undisputed founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran and the charismatic leader who orchestrated the 1979 Iranian Revolution, which culminated in the overthrow of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and the definitive end of the Persian monarchy.

Early Life and Religious Scholarship

Born in Khomeyn, a town in what is now Iran's Markazi Province, Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini faced tragedy early in life when his father was murdered in 1903, leaving him orphaned at the age of two. He began his rigorous religious education from a young age, studying the Quran and Arabic. His relatives, including his mother's cousin and older brother, played a crucial role in supporting and guiding his advanced religious studies, which prepared him for a distinguished career in Shia Islamic scholarship.

Khomeini rose to prominence as a marja ("source of emulation") in Twelver Shia Islam, a highly respected religious authority whose interpretations of Islamic law (Sharia) are followed by his adherents. He was also recognized as a Mujtahid or faqih, an expert in Islamic jurisprudence, and was a prolific author, credited with more than 40 books on various religious and philosophical topics.

The Doctrine of Velayat-e Faqih and Political Exile

Khomeini's profound opposition to the last Shah's rule led to him spending more than 15 years in exile. During this period, particularly through his influential writings and preachings, he significantly expanded the traditional theory of welayat-el faqih, or the "Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist (clerical authority)." While the concept historically referred to spiritual and judicial authority, Khomeini innovatively broadened it to encompass direct theocratic political rule by Islamic jurists in the absence of the Hidden Imam. This revolutionary principle, though not widely known to the public before 1979, became the foundational cornerstone of the new Iranian constitution, appended after being put to a national referendum.

Leadership, Controversies, and Legacy

Following the revolution, Khomeini became the country's first Supreme Leader, a position specifically created in the constitution of the Islamic Republic to function as the highest-ranking political and religious authority. He held this office until his passing. A significant portion of his decade in power was dominated by the devastating Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988), a brutal conflict that profoundly shaped the nascent Islamic Republic. Upon his death on June 3, 1989, he was succeeded by Ali Khamenei on June 4, 1989.

Khomeini's international influence was undeniable, earning him Time magazine's "Man of the Year" in 1979. He has been described as the "virtual face of Shia Islam in Western popular culture" due to his prominent global role. In 1982, he successfully survived a military coup attempt, further solidifying his grip on power.

However, Khomeini's leadership was also marked by significant controversies:

• He notably supported the hostage-takers during the Iran hostage crisis (1979-1981), where 52 American diplomats and citizens were held for 444 days in the U.S. Embassy in Tehran.
• His issuance of a fatwa (religious edict) in 1989, calling for the murder of British Indian novelist Salman Rushdie for his novel "The Satanic Verses," sparked international outrage and a global debate on freedom of speech.
• He famously referred to the United States as the "Great Satan" and the Soviet Union as the "Lesser Satan," articulating his staunch anti-imperialist stance and defining the new republic's foreign policy.

Khomeini has been widely criticized for these acts and for severe human rights violations against Iranians, including his orders for attacks against demonstrators, the execution of thousands of political prisoners and war criminals, and prisoners of the Iran-Iraq War, particularly during the post-war purges of 1988.

Conversely, Khomeini is also lauded by many, particularly Shia scholars, as a "charismatic leader of immense popularity" and a "champion of Islamic revival." He actively attempted to establish good relations between Sunnis and Shias and is recognized as a major innovator in political theory and religious-oriented populist political strategy. Holding the esteemed title of Grand Ayatollah, he is officially known as Imam Khomeini within Iran and by his international supporters. By others, he is generally referred to as Ayatollah Khomeini. In Iran, his opulent gold-domed tomb in Tehran's Behesht-e Zahra cemetery has become a revered shrine for his adherents. He is legally considered "inviolable," with Iranians regularly facing punishment for insulting him, testament to the profound cult of personality that developed around him following the Iranian Revolution and continues to this day.

Frequently Asked Questions about the Iranian Revolution and Ayatollah Khomeini

What were the main causes of the Iranian Revolution?

The primary causes included widespread dissatisfaction with Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi's autocratic rule, his close ties to the West, the repressive tactics of his secret police (SAVAK), and opposition to his secularization and modernization policies (like the White Revolution) which were seen as undermining traditional Islamic values. Economic disparities and corruption also fueled discontent.

What does Velayat-e Faqih mean, and how did Khomeini apply it?

Velayat-e Faqih (Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist) is a Shia Islamic theory. Traditionally, it referred to the authority of a jurist in religious and legal matters. Khomeini expanded this concept to include direct political governance by an Islamic jurist (the Supreme Leader) in the absence of the Hidden Imam, making the religious establishment the ultimate political authority.

How did the Iranian Revolution impact international relations?

The revolution profoundly impacted international relations, particularly by establishing an anti-Western theocracy hostile to the United States. It also spurred a region-wide Shia revival, heightened tensions in the Middle East, and contributed to the outbreak of the Iran-Iraq War. The revolution challenged the Cold War binary, presenting a new model of religiously-inspired statehood.

What was the significance of the Rex Cinema fire?

The Rex Cinema fire in August 1978, which killed hundreds, became a pivotal moment. Widely blamed on the Shah's government (though the exact perpetrators remain debated), it galvanized public outrage and intensified protests, serving as a critical catalyst that pushed the revolution into its final, most violent phase.