Kingdom of Italy and the Vatican sign the Lateran Treaty.

The Kingdom of Italy: A Legacy Forged in Unification (1861-1946)

The Kingdom of Italy, known in Italian as the Regno d'Italia, was a pivotal state that existed for 85 years, from 1861 until 1946. Its establishment marked the culmination of the centuries-long dream of Italian unification, a process known as the Risorgimento. On March 17, 1861, King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia, from the venerable House of Savoy, was formally proclaimed King of Italy, symbolizing the successful integration of various Italian states and territories under a single crown. This new state effectively succeeded the Savoy-led Kingdom of Sardinia (also known as Piedmont-Sardinia), which had been the primary driving force and legal predecessor in the unification movement. The Kingdom's existence concluded in 1946, when widespread civil discontent and a deeply divided populace, weary from the devastation of World War II, led to an institutional referendum. This pivotal vote resulted in the abandonment of the monarchy and the subsequent formation of the modern Italian Republic, the democratic state that exists today.

Unification and Early Foreign Policy

The early years of the Kingdom of Italy were marked by efforts to consolidate its territorial integrity and establish its place on the European stage. A significant step in its unification process occurred in 1866. Leveraging the opportunity presented by the Austro-Prussian War, Italy declared war on Austria, aligning itself with Prussia. This conflict, known as the Third Italian War of Independence, resulted in an Italian-Prussian victory. As a direct consequence, Italy was awarded the strategically important region of Veneto, a crucial territory that had long been under Austrian rule and was seen as integral to a fully unified Italy.

A monumental achievement for the nascent kingdom came in 1870 when Italian troops marched into Rome. This act effectively ended the temporal power of the Papacy, which had persisted for over a millennium, governing the Papal States. The capture of Rome, which subsequently became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, ignited the "Roman Question"—a deep-seated dispute between the newly formed Italian state and the Holy See regarding the Pope's status and the Church's role in a unified Italy, a question that would remain unresolved for decades.

Alliances and Shifting Loyalties Prior to World War I

In 1882, the Kingdom of Italy entered into the Triple Alliance (Dreibund) with the German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. This defensive pact was largely a consequence of Italy's significant disagreements with France over their respective colonial expansions, particularly the French protectorate over Tunisia, which Italy also coveted. While relations between Rome and Berlin grew increasingly friendly and cooperative, the alliance with Vienna remained largely formal and strained. This tension stemmed from Italy's fervent desire to acquire Trentino and Trieste, two regions strategically located within Austria-Hungary but populated by a significant Italian-speaking populace. These territories were central to the concept of *Italia Irredenta*, the nationalist movement advocating for the "unredeemed Italy" to be incorporated into the Kingdom. The inherent conflict of interest meant that Italy's commitment to its Triple Alliance partners, especially Austria-Hungary, was always conditional.

As the Great War loomed, Italy's neutrality was highly sought after. Both the Central Powers (Germany and Austria-Hungary) and the Allied Powers (Britain, France, Russia) made overtures. Ultimately, during World War I, Italy decided to abandon its long-standing alliance and accepted an invitation from Britain to join the Allied Powers in 1915. This crucial decision was heavily influenced by the secret Treaty of London, signed on April 26, 1915. The Western powers promised Italy substantial territorial compensation at the expense of Austria-Hungary—including Trentino, Trieste, South Tyrol, parts of Dalmatia, and other strategic areas—promises far more generous than Vienna's offer in exchange for Italian neutrality. Italy formally declared war on Austria-Hungary on May 23, 1915, and on Germany on August 27, 1916. Following its victory alongside the Allies, Italy secured a permanent seat on the Council of the newly formed League of Nations, reflecting its elevated status as a major European power.

Fascist Italy: The Era of Mussolini (1922-1943)

The period often referred to as "Fascist Italy" encompasses the era of National Fascist Party government, led by Benito Mussolini as head of government, from 1922 to 1943. This transformative period began with the dramatic "March on Rome" in October 1922, which saw Mussolini appointed Prime Minister, and ended with his overthrow during World War II.

Under Fascist rule, a totalitarian system was gradually imposed upon the nation. The regime systematically crushed political and intellectual opposition through censorship, secret police (OVRA), and the suppression of dissent. Simultaneously, the Fascists promoted a robust agenda of economic modernization, undertaking large-scale public works projects and efforts to increase agricultural self-sufficiency. They also championed traditional social values, advocating for a return to perceived Roman glory and strict moral codes. Crucially, this era witnessed a significant rapprochement with the Roman Catholic Church, culminating in the Lateran Treaty.

According to historian Stanley G. Payne (1996), the Fascist government's trajectory can be divided into several relatively distinct phases, each reflecting shifts in its consolidation of power and policy direction:

World War II and the Fall of Fascism

Fascist Italy became a leading member of the Axis powers during World War II, formally entering the conflict in June 1940. However, by 1943, the combined German-Italian forces faced overwhelming defeats across various fronts, most notably in North Africa and the Soviet Union. The subsequent Allied landings in Sicily in July 1943 proved to be a decisive blow, directly leading to the fall of the Fascist regime. On July 25, 1943, following a vote of no confidence from the Grand Council of Fascism, King Victor Emmanuel III ordered Mussolini's arrest. This marked the effective end of Fascist Italy.

A new Italian government, led by Marshal Pietro Badoglio, secretly began negotiations with the Allies, signing an armistice on September 3, 1943 (publicly announced on September 8). In response to Italy's defection, German forces swiftly occupied northern and central Italy. They established the Italian Social Republic (Repubblica Sociale Italiana, RSI), commonly known as the Salò Government—a collaborationist puppet state still nominally led by a freed Benito Mussolini and his most loyal Fascist followers. This tumultuous period plunged Italy into a brutal civil war, pitting the Italian Co-belligerent Army (aligned with the Allies) and the burgeoning Italian resistance movement (Partisans) against the forces of the Social Republic and its German allies.

Following the ultimate defeat of the Axis powers and the liberation of the entire country, widespread civil discontent, stemming from years of war, dictatorship, and foreign occupation, resurfaced. This led to the aforementioned institutional referendum in June 1946, where the Italian people decisively chose to abandon the monarchy and establish the Italian Republic, ushering in the present-day democratic Italian state.

The Lateran Treaty: Resolving the Roman Question

The Lateran Treaty, known in Italian as the Patti Lateranensi and in Latin as Pacta Lateranensia, was a monumental agreement signed on February 11, 1929. It constituted a key component of the broader Lateran Pacts, a series of agreements between the Kingdom of Italy, then led by King Victor Emmanuel III, and the Holy See under Pope Pius XI. The primary objective of these pacts was to definitively settle the "Roman Question," the long-standing political and territorial dispute that had existed between the Italian state and the Papacy since the capture of Rome in 1870 and the end of the Papal States.

The treaty and its associated pacts derived their name from the Lateran Palace in Rome, where the historic signing took place. The Italian parliament subsequently ratified these agreements on June 7, 1929, making them legally binding.

The Lateran Pacts were comprehensive, consisting of three main documents:

The resolution of the Roman Question through the Lateran Treaty was a triumph for both the Kingdom of Italy, which gained international legitimacy for its annexation of Rome, and the Holy See, which secured its spiritual independence and sovereign territorial base. The enduring significance of the treaty is underscored by its recognition within the 1948 Constitution of Italy, where it was explicitly incorporated to regulate the fundamental relations between the Italian state and the Catholic Church, cementing its role in modern Italian law and society.

Frequently Asked Questions about the Kingdom of Italy and its Legacy

When did the Kingdom of Italy begin and end?
The Kingdom of Italy was established on March 17, 1861, with the proclamation of King Victor Emmanuel II. It ceased to exist on June 2, 1946, following a national referendum that led to the formation of the Italian Republic.
What was the Risorgimento?
The Risorgimento was the political and social movement that unified the different states of the Italian peninsula into the single state of the Kingdom of Italy in the 19th century. It involved various political and military efforts, notably led by figures like Giuseppe Garibaldi and Camillo Cavour, under the ultimate leadership of the House of Savoy.
Why did Italy join the Allies in World War I despite being part of the Triple Alliance?
Italy was enticed to join the Allied Powers through the secret Treaty of London (1915), which offered substantial territorial gains (including areas with Italian populations) from Austria-Hungary, exceeding any offers from the Central Powers for Italian neutrality. Italy also had long-standing territorial disputes with Austria-Hungary over regions like Trentino and Trieste.
Who was Benito Mussolini and what was "Fascist Italy"?
Benito Mussolini was the totalitarian dictator who led the National Fascist Party and governed Italy from 1922 to 1943. "Fascist Italy" refers to this period, characterized by a one-party state, suppression of opposition, economic modernization efforts, and an aggressive foreign policy that ultimately led to Italy's involvement in World War II as an Axis power.
What was the Lateran Treaty?
The Lateran Treaty, signed in 1929, was a comprehensive agreement between the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy See. It resolved the long-standing "Roman Question" by recognizing Vatican City as an independent sovereign state, establishing Catholicism as the state religion in Italy through a Concordat, and providing financial compensation to the Holy See for the loss of the Papal States.
How did the Kingdom of Italy transition into the Italian Republic?
After the defeat of Fascist Italy in World War II and a period of civil war, a national institutional referendum was held on June 2, 1946. The Italian people voted to abolish the monarchy and establish a republic, leading to the creation of the modern Italian Republic and the drafting of a new constitution.