The Xuantong Emperor, the last Emperor of China, abdicates.

Puyi: The Final Monarch of Imperial China

Born on February 7, 1906, with the courtesy name Yaozhi (曜之), Aisin-Gioro Puyi (Chinese: 溥儀) holds a unique and poignant place in the annals of Chinese history as the eleventh and ultimate emperor of the Qing dynasty, marking the definitive end of imperial rule in China. His extraordinary life, spanning a period of immense upheaval and transformation from the twilight of imperial China to the dawn of the People's Republic, saw him ascend to the Dragon Throne as a child, only to be repeatedly stripped of power and thrust into complex, often compromising, political roles by the major global forces of his time. His journey from an absolute monarch to a common citizen offers a profound narrative on power, identity, and the relentless march of history.

Child Emperor and the Fall of the Qing Dynasty

Puyi's initial reign began precariously at the tender age of two, when he was enthroned as the Qing emperor in 1908. His era name, "Xuantong" (often rendered as Hsuan-tung), meaning "proclamation of unity," ironically presided over a period of growing national disunity and revolutionary fervor. Just four years later, the ancient imperial system, which had governed China for millennia, crumbled under the weight of internal dissent and external pressures. On February 12, 1912, amidst the escalating Xinhai Revolution – a nationalist uprising that sought to establish a modern republic – the young Puyi was compelled to abdicate. This pivotal event formally ended the Qing dynasty, the last imperial dynasty of China, which had ruled for nearly three centuries since its establishment in 1644, and brought about the establishment of the Republic of China, fundamentally altering the course of Chinese history.

A Brief and Failed Restoration

Despite his abdication, Puyi's story was far from over. He continued to reside within the Forbidden City, enjoying certain imperial privileges and a generous annual stipend under the "Articles of Favorable Treatment" negotiated with the new Republic. This unique status, however, made him a symbolic figurehead for various monarchist factions desiring a return to the old order. In a dramatic but short-lived turn of events, from July 1 to July 12, 1917, Puyi was briefly restored to the Qing throne by the staunchly monarchist general Zhang Xun. This audacious coup, known as the Manchu Restoration, aimed to revive the imperial system but lacked popular support and was swiftly crushed by other republican warlords, demonstrating the irreversible shift in China's political landscape towards a republican future.

Life Beyond the Forbidden City and Growing Japanese Influence

In 1922, Puyi entered an arranged marriage with Empress Wanrong, a union that mirrored the traditional imperial customs he was trying to maintain amidst a rapidly modernizing nation. However, his privileged existence within the Forbidden City came to an abrupt end in 1924 when he was formally expelled by the warlord Feng Yuxiang, who revoked the "Articles of Favorable Treatment." Stripped of his titles and financial support, Puyi sought refuge in Tianjin's Japanese concession, a foreign-controlled enclave. During this period, marked by China's chaotic Warlord Era, Puyi found himself increasingly entangled in the intricate web of political maneuvering, actively courting both Chinese warlords vying for control and, more significantly, the expansionist Japanese Empire. The Japanese, with their long-standing desire for influence and territorial gains in China, saw in Puyi a potent, albeit desperate, symbol they could exploit for their imperialistic ambitions, particularly in the resource-rich region of Manchuria.

Emperor of Manchukuo: A Puppet Ruler Under Japanese Control

The turning point in Puyi's tragic involvement with Japan arrived following the Mukden Incident in September 1931, a staged event used by the Japanese Kwantung Army as a pretext to invade Manchuria. By 1932, Japan had established the puppet state of Manchukuo in the conquered territory. In March 1932, Puyi was installed as the "chief executive" of this new regime, a move designed to lend a facade of legitimacy to Japan's occupation and exploitation of Manchuria by associating it with a figure from China's imperial past. He adopted the era name "Datong" (Ta-tung), signifying "great unity," a stark contrast to the reality of his diminished authority and the true intentions of his Japanese handlers. Two years later, in March 1934, Japan formally elevated him to the title of "Emperor of Manchukuo," bestowing upon him the era name "Kangde" (Kang-te), meaning "tranquility and virtue."

Puyi's reign as emperor of Manchukuo lasted until the conclusion of the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II in 1945. This third, and ultimately most tragic, stint as an emperor unequivocally saw him as a mere puppet of the Japanese. He held virtually no real power, compelled to sign almost every edict and policy handed to him by his Japanese advisors, who held the true reins of governance. During these years, he primarily resided in the Salt Tax Palace in Changchun (then Xinjing, the capital of Manchukuo), where historical accounts suggest he exhibited a tyrannical disposition, frequently ordering his servants to be beaten, perhaps a manifestation of his profound powerlessness and frustration. His personal life was also marked by sorrow; his first wife, Empress Wanrong, struggled deeply with an escalating opium addiction, leading to an increasingly distant and tragic relationship that culminated in her institutionalization and eventual death.

Capture, Imprisonment, and Ideological Reeducation

With the rapid collapse of the Japanese Empire in August 1945 following the Soviet invasion of Manchuria (known as Operation August Storm) and the atomic bombings, Manchukuo ceased to exist. Puyi, attempting to flee to Japan, was captured by Soviet forces at Shenyang airport. He spent several years as a prisoner of war in the Soviet Union. Following the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, Puyi was extradited back to his homeland in 1950. Tragically, he never saw Empress Wanrong again after his capture; she had succumbed to starvation and opium withdrawal in a Chinese prison in 1946, a desolate end for a woman once at the pinnacle of Chinese society.

Upon his return to China, Puyi faced justice for his role as the head of the Japanese puppet state. He was a prominent defendant at the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, commonly known as the Tokyo Trials, where he testified extensively about Japanese atrocities, including Unit 731. Subsequently, he was imprisoned for over a decade at the Fushun War Criminals Management Centre in Liaoning Province. Here, he underwent a rigorous "thought reform" or reeducation program, a cornerstone of Communist China's policy for former enemies. This intensive program aimed to transform "war criminals" into productive citizens by instilling communist ideology and encouraging self-criticism. For Puyi, this involved manual labor, political study, and deep introspection into his past actions, particularly his collaboration with the Japanese.

From Emperor to Citizen: A New Beginning in the People's Republic

Puyi's time in prison proved to be profoundly transformative. After his release in 1959, following a special pardon, he emerged a changed man, expressing deep regret for his actions and his past role as an emperor. He lived out his remaining years as a common citizen, working initially as a gardener at the Beijing Botanical Garden and later as an editor for the national political advisory body. With the assistance of a ghostwriter, he penned his widely acclaimed memoirs, "From Emperor to Citizen" (我的前半生, Wǒde Qiánbànshēng), which offer a unique firsthand account of his extraordinary life and his ideological conversion. He became a titular member of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) and the National People's Congress (NPC), participating in the political life of the new China, albeit in an advisory capacity. This remarkable journey from absolute ruler to ordinary citizen, and then to a respected figure within the Communist establishment, captivated the world.

Puyi passed away on October 17, 1967, at the age of 61, during the tumultuous early years of the Cultural Revolution. He was initially interred in the Babaoshan Revolutionary Cemetery, a prestigious burial ground reserved for high-ranking communist officials and national heroes. However, in 1995, his ashes were moved to a commercial cemetery, the Hualong Royal Cemetery, located near the Western Qing tombs in Hebei province, placing him closer to the final resting places of his imperial ancestors—an ironic but fitting end for the last emperor, symbolizing both his imperial lineage and his eventual integration into modern Chinese society.

Frequently Asked Questions about Puyi

Who was Puyi?
Puyi (1906–1967) was the last emperor of China, the final monarch of the Qing dynasty. His life was marked by three distinct reigns: as the child Qing emperor (Xuantong Emperor), a brief restoration, and later as the emperor of the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo (Kangde Emperor).
When did Puyi become emperor of China?
Puyi became the Qing emperor in 1908 at the age of two, reigning under the era name "Xuantong." His rule was short-lived, as he was forced to abdicate on February 12, 1912, following the Xinhai Revolution, which ended imperial China.
What was the Xinhai Revolution and how did it affect Puyi?
The Xinhai Revolution (1911–1912) was a nationalist revolution that overthrew China's last imperial dynasty, the Qing. It directly led to Puyi's abdication as the Qing emperor and the establishment of the Republic of China, fundamentally altering his destiny and the course of Chinese history.
What was Manchukuo and Puyi's role in it?
Manchukuo was a Japanese puppet state established in Manchuria in 1932 after the Japanese invasion. Puyi was initially installed as its Chief Executive in 1932 (era name Datong) and then proclaimed its emperor in 1934 (era name Kangde). He served as a figurehead, with real power resting with his Japanese overlords, until the state's collapse in 1945.
What happened to Puyi after World War II?
After the fall of Manchukuo in 1945, Puyi was captured by Soviet forces and held as a prisoner of war. In 1950, he was extradited to the People's Republic of China, where he was imprisoned for ten years in a war criminals reeducation camp. He was released in 1959 and lived the remainder of his life as a common citizen, even becoming a member of political advisory bodies.
Did Puyi write a book?
Yes, Puyi wrote his memoirs titled "From Emperor to Citizen" (我的前半生), with the help of a ghostwriter. The book details his extraordinary life, from his imperial upbringing to his transformation during reeducation, and offers unique insights into a pivotal era of Chinese history.