Wu Zetian, Chinese consort to Emperor Gaozong of Tang, afterwards ruled as a regent and then as the empress of the Zhou dynasty (d. 705)
Empress Wu Zetian: China's Sole Female Sovereign and Her Enduring Legacy
Wu Zhao, widely recognized as Wu Zetian (born February 17, 624, died December 16, 705), and also known by the titles Wu Hou or, during the later Tang dynasty, Tian Hou, holds a singular and powerful position in Chinese history. She served as the de facto ruler of the illustrious Tang dynasty from 665 to 690, initially as an influential empress consort to her husband, Emperor Gaozong, and subsequently as a dominant empress dowager governing through her sons, Emperors Zhongzong and Ruizong. While the profound influence of an empress consort or the regency of an empress dowager had precedents in Chinese history, Wu Zetian transcended these roles to achieve something truly unprecedented: she became the empress regnant of the Wu Zhou dynasty of China, ruling directly and officially from 690 to 705. This remarkable feat cemented her status as the only legitimate female sovereign to rule China in its entire history.
Her nearly 40-year period of paramount influence and direct rule profoundly shaped China. Under her astute and often ruthless leadership, the Chinese empire experienced significant territorial expansion, notably extending its reach into Central Asia and engaging in strategic military campaigns on the Korean Peninsula. Internally, her reign was marked by a concerted effort to reduce corruption within the imperial court, a robust revitalization of China's rich culture and vibrant economy, and a strengthening of its international standing, solidifying its recognition as one of the preeminent global powers of the era.
The Ascent to Power: From Concubine to Dominant Empress
Wu Zetian's journey to the pinnacle of imperial power was extraordinary and fraught with political intrigue. Her initial entry into the imperial court was as a concubine to Emperor Taizong, one of the most revered emperors of the Tang dynasty. Following his death, a pivotal moment arrived when she defied convention and married his successor, his ninth son, Emperor Gaozong. This marriage elevated her status significantly, and by 655, she officially became Gaozong's huanghou (皇后), the empress consort, which was the highest-ranking position among all imperial wives. However, her political acumen and ambition were evident even before this formal elevation, as she had already accumulated considerable influence within the court. Upon becoming empress, her control over court affairs rapidly intensified.
A significant turning point occurred in 660 when Emperor Gaozong suffered a debilitating stroke. This left him severely incapacitated and unable to manage the complex affairs of state. In response, Wu Zetian effectively stepped into the void, assuming the role of administrator of the court. This position, which she held until 705, granted her powers virtually equal to those of the emperor himself. Her earlier years within Gaozong's harem were marked by fierce power struggles, most notably with the sitting Empress Wang and Consort Xiao. Through cunning and ruthless political maneuvering, she successfully undermined her rivals, leading to their expulsion from the palace and eventual demise, securing her unchallenged position as the primary influence over the emperor.
Empress Wu was a formidable personality: strong-willed, charismatic, exceptionally cunning, and fiercely ambitious. Her well-honed intelligence and education, combined with the absolute favor of her husband, made her the most powerful and influential woman at court during a period when the Tang Empire was experiencing the zenith of its glory. Historians widely regard her as the true power behind the throne during Emperor Gaozong's reign, wielding real authority for more than two decades until his death. Her control over the imperial administration became increasingly absolute, beginning partially in November 660 and becoming total by January 665. Historical records attest to her unparalleled influence, stating, "She was at the helm of the country for long years, her power is no different from that of the emperor." She presided over court meetings alongside the emperor and even conducted court independently when he was too ill. Crucially, she was entrusted with the Heirloom Seal of the Realm, a potent symbol of imperial authority, signifying that her perusal and consent were indispensable for any imperial document or order to gain legal validity. Gaozong consistently sought her counsel on all matters before issuing directives, and in his final years, he formally delegated most of his state responsibilities to her due to his ongoing illness. These unprecedented honors and privileges were not bestowed upon any Chinese empress before or after her.
Unprecedented Rule: The Wu Zhou Dynasty
Following Emperor Gaozong's death, Empress Wu, now as empress dowager and regent, consolidated her power completely and exclusively. She exercised this absolute authority with even greater force and decisiveness, swiftly suppressing both overt and covert opposition. Her ultimate ambition was realized seven years later when, in 690, she formally seized the throne from her own son, establishing her own dynasty, the Wu Zhou dynasty, and becoming the sole empress regnant in China's long history. This move was truly revolutionary, shattering centuries of patriarchal tradition that reserved imperial rule exclusively for men. Wu Zetian's iconic image is famously depicted in the Wu Shuang Pu (無雙譜, Table of Peerless Heroes) by Jin Guliang, a testament to her legendary status.
- Was Wu Zetian the only female emperor of China?
- Yes, Wu Zetian is uniquely recognized as the only legitimate female sovereign and empress regnant in the entirety of Chinese history. While other empresses or empress dowagers wielded significant influence or acted as regents, none ever formally ascended the throne and established their own dynasty in their own name, ruling as the undisputed emperor.
Strategic Governance and Imperial Expansion
Wu Zetian is frequently cited by historians as one of the greatest emperors in Chinese history, a testament to her strong leadership and remarkably effective governance. Her reign ushered in a period where China solidified its position as one of the world's most powerful nations, largely due to her strategic vision and pragmatic policies.
Key achievements and impacts of her political and military leadership include:
- Major Imperial Expansion: The Chinese empire expanded significantly under her rule, pushing its territorial limits far beyond previous boundaries. This included deep penetration into Central Asia, securing vital trade routes along the Silk Road and extending Chinese influence over various nomadic tribes.
- Korean Peninsula Campaigns: Wu Zetian engaged in a series of complex wars on the Korean Peninsula. Initially, she formed an alliance with the Silla kingdom against its rivals, Goguryeo and Baekje. Following the defeat of Goguryeo and Baekje, the Tang Empire then found itself in conflict with Silla over the occupation and administration of the former Goguryeo territories, demonstrating her aggressive foreign policy aimed at securing China's borders and expanding its sphere of influence.
- Social Mobility and Meritocracy: Within China, beyond the immediate consequences of her struggle to gain and maintain supreme power, Wu's leadership brought about significant changes in Chinese society. She actively promoted a system of meritocracy, particularly through reforms to the imperial examination system. This system allowed capable individuals from less aristocratic backgrounds to ascend to positions of power, weakening the influence of the established noble families and strengthening the central government by drawing talent from a broader base.
- State Support for Religion and Culture: Her reign saw substantial state patronage for various cultural and intellectual pursuits.
- Buddhism: She elevated the status of Buddhism, making it a prominent state religion and commissioning numerous grand temples and artworks, including major contributions to the breathtaking statuary of the Longmen Grottoes, which depict thousands of Buddhist images carved into limestone cliffs.
- Taoism: While initially favoring Buddhism, she also maintained state support for Taoism, recognizing its historical roots in Chinese culture.
- Education and Literature: Wu Zetian actively encouraged education and fostered a flourishing literary environment. She commissioned new literary works and supported scholars, contributing to a vibrant cultural landscape.
- Intelligence and Administration: To maintain control and ensure efficient governance, she established an elaborate network of spies and an intelligence system throughout the court and across the empire. This system delivered daily reports on current affairs and identified potential opposition to the central state, allowing her to preempt challenges and maintain stability. Her reforms to the imperial examination system were crucial for ensuring that capable and loyal officials were appointed to key government positions, contributing to a peaceful and well-governed state.
- Architectural and Artistic Patronage: Beyond politics, Wu Zetian left an indelible mark on Chinese art and architecture. Her impact is notably seen in the continued development of the Longmen Grottoes and the enigmatic "Wordless Stele" at the Qianling Mausoleum, her burial site. She also commissioned the construction of several major palace buildings and colossal bronze castings, though many of these physical structures have not survived to the present day.
Family Life and Dynastic Connections
While her political career dominated her life, Wu Zetian also had an active family life. She was the mother of four sons, three of whom eventually held the title of emperor, although one only received this honor posthumously. Her complex relationship with her sons, marked by both maternal ambition and political ruthlessness, was a defining aspect of her personal narrative. Remarkably, one of her grandsons would later ascend to become the renowned Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, whose reign is often considered a high point of the Tang dynasty's cultural and political power. Her legacy, therefore, extended not only through her direct rule but also through the imperial line she influenced, for better or worse.