Events on February 2 in history

Pakistan suggests a six-point agenda with Kashmir after the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965.

Kashmir: A Geopolitical and Cultural Crossroads in the Indian Subcontinent

Kashmir, pronounced [kaʃmiːr], stands as the northernmost geographical expanse of the Indian subcontinent. Historically, until the mid-19th century, the designation "Kashmir" exclusively referred to the picturesque Kashmir Valley, a verdant basin nestled majestically between the colossal Great Himalayas to its northeast and the imposing Pir Panjal Range to its southwest. This valley, renowned for its breathtaking landscapes and fertile plains watered by rivers like the Jhelum, has long been a cradle of civilization. Today, the contemporary usage of the term "Kashmir" significantly broadens its scope, encompassing a vast and diverse region administered by three different nations. This expanded territory includes the Indian-administered regions of Jammu and Kashmir, known for its twin capitals Srinagar (summer) and Jammu (winter), and the high-altitude desert Union Territory of Ladakh, famed for its unique Buddhist culture and stunning monastic landscapes. Additionally, it covers the Pakistani-administered territories of Azad Kashmir, with its capital Muzaffarabad, and Gilgit-Baltistan, a mountainous region home to some of the world's highest peaks, including K2, and a vital part of the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC). The Chinese-administered territories of Aksai Chin, a vast, desolate high-altitude desert, and the Trans-Karakoram Tract, ceded by Pakistan to China, also fall within this broader definition, highlighting the region's complex geopolitical tapestry.

A Rich Tapestry of Civilizations: Kashmir's Historical Evolution

Kashmir's history is deeply intertwined with the evolution of major South Asian religions and empires, marking it as a significant cultural and intellectual hub. In the first half of the first millennium CE, the region emerged as a pivotal center for Hinduism, fostering the development of profound philosophical schools and pilgrimage sites like the ancient Sharada Peeth. Subsequently, it became a thriving stronghold of Buddhism, influenced by the Gandhara civilization, leaving behind a legacy of stupas and monasteries. By the ninth century, a distinct philosophical tradition, Kashmir Shaivism, a unique non-dualist school of Hinduism, blossomed in the valley, significantly impacting spiritual thought. A pivotal shift occurred in 1339 when Shah Mir, arriving from Swat, ascended as the first Muslim ruler, establishing the Salatin-i-Kashmir, also known as the Shah Mir dynasty. This marked the beginning of Muslim rule in Kashmir. The region later integrated into the formidable Mughal Empire from 1586 to 1751, a period that saw the construction of exquisite Mughal gardens and administrative reforms. Following the decline of the Mughals, Kashmir fell under the sway of the Afghan Durrani Empire from 1751 until 1820. That year, the burgeoning Sikh Empire, under the dynamic leadership of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, successfully annexed Kashmir, incorporating it into their vast domain. A critical turning point arrived in 1846, subsequent to the Sikh Empire's defeat in the First Anglo-Sikh War. Under the terms of the Treaty of Amritsar, the British, who had gained control of the region, sold Kashmir to Gulab Singh, the Raja of Jammu, for 7.5 million Nanak Shahi rupees. This treaty established the Dogra dynasty, with Gulab Singh becoming the Maharaja of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. The rule of his descendants, while enjoying internal autonomy, operated under the paramountcy—or suzerainty—of the British Crown, lasting until the momentous Partition of India in 1947. This historic event led to the dissolution of the British Indian Empire and transformed the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir into a contentious, disputed territory, subsequently administered in parts by India, Pakistan, and China, each with their own claims.

The 1965 Indo-Pakistani War: A Defining Conflict in Kashmir

The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, often referred to as the Second Kashmir War, represented a significant escalation of tensions between the two newly independent nations, culminating from a series of border skirmishes that unfolded between April and September of that year. A precursor to the full-scale conflict was the Rann of Kutch border dispute in April 1965, which, while resolved through British mediation, heightened animosity. The immediate catalyst for the 1965 war was Pakistan's meticulously planned "Operation Gibraltar," launched in August 1965. This covert operation aimed to infiltrate thousands of armed irregulars and special forces into the Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir with the explicit goal of fomenting a local insurgency against Indian rule. Pakistan anticipated that a popular uprising would either lead to Kashmir's secession or force India into negotiations on its status. However, the operation largely failed to garner the anticipated local support, and many infiltrators were either captured or killed. The ensuing seventeen-day war, one of the shortest yet most intense conflicts of the Cold War era, exacted a heavy toll, causing thousands of casualties on both sides. It bore witness to unprecedented levels of military engagement, including the largest deployment of armored vehicles and the most extensive tank battles since World War II, particularly in sectors like Asal Uttar in Punjab. Hostilities were eventually brought to an end by a United Nations Security Council (UNSC) ceasefire, formally declared through Resolution 211 on September 20, 1965, largely due to strenuous diplomatic interventions by the United States and the Soviet Union, both eager to prevent a wider conflict. This was followed by the Tashkent Declaration, signed on January 10, 1966, by Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistani President Ayub Khan, which called for the mutual withdrawal of forces to pre-conflict positions. A substantial portion of the fighting occurred in Kashmir and along the international border between India and Pakistan, notably in the Punjab sector. The conflict saw the largest amassing of troops in Kashmir since the 1947 Partition, a number only surpassed during the tense 2001-2002 military standoff between India and Pakistan. The war was predominantly fought by opposing infantry and armored units, with crucial and substantial backing from both air forces, which engaged in significant aerial combat, and limited naval operations in the Arabian Sea.

Geopolitical Fallout and Lasting Legacies of the 1965 War

Despite the official declaration of a ceasefire resulting in a strategic "standoff" between India and Pakistan, the 1965 conflict is widely interpreted as a significant strategic and political defeat for Pakistan. This assessment stems from Pakistan's failure to achieve its primary objectives: neither did it succeed in triggering a widespread insurgency within Kashmir, nor was it able to secure meaningful international support for its position on the Kashmir dispute. Internationally, the war was critically observed through the lens of the larger Cold War dynamics, leading to a profound geopolitical realignment in the subcontinent. Prior to the war, both India and Pakistan had relied heavily on the United States and the United Kingdom as their principal material allies, serving as major suppliers of military hardware and providers of foreign developmental aid. However, during and immediately after the conflict, both nations experienced a deep sense of betrayal due to the perceived lack of robust support from these Western powers for their respective stances. This feeling was intensely amplified by the imposition of a joint American and British embargo on military aid to both warring sides, effectively cutting off crucial supplies. Consequently, India, which had maintained a non-aligned foreign policy but felt let down by the West, openly gravitated towards a closer strategic and military relationship with the Soviet Union. Similarly, Pakistan, facing diminished Western support, strengthened its ties with China, which emerged as a crucial strategic partner. The perceived neutrality or even negative stance of Western powers during the 1965 conflict, a sentiment further reinforced during the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War, has cast a long shadow over relations between the West and the subcontinent. While there have been significant improvements in diplomatic and economic ties with the U.S. and Britain since the end of the Cold War, the events of 1965 generated a deep-seated distrust within both India and Pakistan towards these Western nations, a sentiment that, to a certain extent, persists to this day, shaping regional foreign policy considerations.

Frequently Asked Questions About Kashmir and the 1965 War

What is the historical significance of Kashmir?

Kashmir has been a melting pot of cultures and religions, serving as an important center for Hinduism, Buddhism, and later Islam. It fostered unique philosophical traditions like Kashmir Shaivism and was strategically important for various empires, including the Mughals and Sikhs, before becoming a princely state under British paramountcy and subsequently a disputed territory.

Which countries administer parts of Kashmir today?

Today, the broader Kashmir region is administered by three countries: India (Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh), Pakistan (Azad Kashmir, Gilgit-Baltistan), and China (Aksai Chin, Trans-Karakoram Tract).

What was Operation Gibraltar?

Operation Gibraltar was a Pakistani covert military plan launched in August 1965, aiming to infiltrate armed personnel into Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir to instigate an insurgency against Indian rule and trigger a popular uprising. It ultimately failed to achieve its objectives and directly led to the 1965 Indo-Pakistani War.

How did the 1965 Indo-Pakistani War conclude?

The 1965 war ended after 17 days with a UN-mandated ceasefire (UNSC Resolution 211) following diplomatic interventions by the United States and the Soviet Union. This was followed by the Tashkent Declaration, which called for the mutual withdrawal of forces to pre-conflict positions.

What were the long-term geopolitical impacts of the 1965 war?

The 1965 war led to a significant geopolitical shift in the subcontinent. Both India and Pakistan felt abandoned by Western powers (US/UK) due to military aid embargoes. This prompted India to forge closer ties with the Soviet Union and Pakistan to strengthen its relationship with China, altering Cold War alliances in the region and fostering lingering distrust towards Western nations.