Soviet war in Afghanistan: The last Soviet armoured column leaves Kabul.

The Soviet-Afghan War: A Defining Cold War Conflict and Its Lasting Legacy (1979–1989)

The Soviet–Afghan War, spanning a decade from 1979 to 1989, represented a pivotal and devastating conflict during the latter stages of the Cold War. It pitted the forces of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA), a communist government, and their primary international ally, the Soviet Army, against a diverse array of insurgent groups. These opposition forces were collectively known as the Mujahideen, or "holy warriors," and included various smaller Marxist–Leninist–Maoist factions. The nine-year struggle was predominantly a guerrilla war, fought largely across the rugged, mountainous countryside of Afghanistan, which proved particularly challenging for the Soviet Union's conventional military might.

This conflict quickly evolved into a quintessential proxy war of the Cold War era, where the two global superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, supported opposing sides without directly engaging each other in combat. The Mujahideen received substantial backing primarily from the United States, Pakistan, Iran, Saudi Arabia, China, and the United Kingdom. This international support transformed a local rebellion into a wider geopolitical struggle with profound consequences.

The human toll of the Soviet-Afghan War was catastrophic. Estimates suggest that between 562,000 and 2,000,000 Afghans perished, representing approximately 6.5% to 11.5% of Afghanistan's entire population at the time. Millions more were forced to flee their homes, becoming refugees, with the vast majority seeking asylum in neighboring Pakistan and Iran. Beyond the immediate loss of life, the war inflicted immense destruction on Afghanistan's infrastructure and societal fabric. Furthermore, scholars often cite the conflict as a significant contributing factor to the eventual dissolution of the Soviet Union itself and the conclusion of the broader Cold War, leaving behind a complex and often painful legacy for the people in both Afghanistan and the former Soviet territories.

Roots of the Conflict: The Saur Revolution and Internal Strife

The groundwork for the Soviet intervention was laid by the 1978 Saur Revolution. On April 27, 1978, Afghanistan's communist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) seized power through a military coup, overthrowing the government of President Mohammed Daoud Khan. The new Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA) initiated a series of radical modernization and land reforms across the country. These reforms, which included land redistribution, mandatory secular education for girls, and the abolition of traditional Islamic laws, were deeply unpopular among Afghanistan's more traditional, rural population and established tribal and religious power structures.

The repressive nature of the fledgling "Democratic Republic" further exacerbated discontent. The PDPA government vigorously suppressed any opposition, executing thousands of political prisoners and intellectuals, and establishing a formidable secret police force, KHAD (State Information Services). This brutal crackdown fueled the rapid rise of anti-government armed groups, leading to widespread rebellion. By April 1979, significant portions of the country were in open revolt against the communist regime.

Adding to the instability, the communist party itself was plagued by deep internal rivalries between its two main factions: the Khalq (Masses) faction, which advocated for a more rapid and radical implementation of communist policies, and the Parcham (Banner) faction, which favored a more gradual approach. In September 1979, this internal power struggle culminated in the assassination of People's Democratic Party General Secretary Nur Mohammad Taraki, allegedly under the orders of his second-in-command, Hafizullah Amin. This event severely soured relations with the Soviet Union, which viewed Amin with increasing suspicion and distrust.

The Soviet Intervention: Operation Storm-333 and the Brezhnev Doctrine

Fears mounted within the Soviet government that Hafizullah Amin, increasingly seen as erratic and nationalistic, might be planning to align Afghanistan with the United States. Furthermore, the Soviet Union was concerned about the growing instability on its southern border and the potential rise of Islamist movements that could spill over into its Central Asian republics. Under the leadership of Leonid Brezhnev, the Soviet government decided on a decisive military intervention. On December 24, 1979, the Soviet 40th Army began crossing the border into Afghanistan.

Upon arriving in the capital, Kabul, Soviet forces swiftly executed "Operation Storm-333" on December 27, 1979. This clandestine military operation involved special forces assaulting the Tajbeg Palace, where General Secretary Amin resided. Amin was killed during the assault, and the Soviets swiftly installed Babrak Karmal, a Soviet loyalist from the rival Parcham faction, as the new leader of the DRA. The Soviet Union justified this invasion based on the Brezhnev Doctrine, which asserted the Soviet Union's right to intervene in socialist countries to protect the socialist system from internal or external threats.

Global Condemnation and the Proxy War's Escalation

The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan triggered widespread international condemnation. In January 1980, foreign ministers from 34 nations of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) adopted a strong resolution demanding "the immediate, urgent and unconditional withdrawal of Soviet troops" from Afghanistan. The United Nations General Assembly also passed a resolution protesting the Soviet intervention by an overwhelming vote of 104 nations in favor to 18 against, with 18 abstentions. Only a handful of Soviet allies, including Angola, East Germany, and Vietnam, along with India, supported or abstained on the intervention, highlighting the global isolation of the Soviet Union on this issue.

Following the invasion, Afghan insurgents, primarily the Mujahideen, began to receive massive amounts of support from an international coalition opposed to the Soviet presence. This aid included finance, military training, and weapons, channeled primarily through neighboring Pakistan. The United States and the United Kingdom played significant roles in providing this assistance. For instance, the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) launched Operation Cyclone, one of its longest and most expensive covert operations, which saw billions of dollars in funding directed to Afghan rebel groups through Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI). Beyond Western powers, China and the wealthy Arab monarchies in the Persian Gulf also heavily financed the Mujahideen, driven by their own geopolitical interests and religious solidarity.

The conflict quickly settled into a protracted struggle. Soviet troops primarily occupied the cities and main arteries of communication, attempting to secure the Afghan government's control over key areas. However, the Mujahideen, operating in small, agile groups, waged an effective guerrilla war across the vast, rugged, and mountainous terrain of the countryside, which constituted almost 80 percent of the country and remained largely outside direct government and Soviet control. The Soviets, frustrated by the elusive nature of their enemy, resorted to harsh tactics, extensively using their air power to target both rebels and civilians. These tactics included leveling entire villages to deny safe haven to the Mujahideen, destroying vital irrigation ditches essential for agriculture, and laying millions of landmines, which continue to pose a threat in Afghanistan to this day.

International Repercussions and the Soviet Withdrawal

The international community imposed numerous sanctions and embargoes against the Soviet Union in response to the invasion. A notable act of protest was the U.S.-led boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics held in Moscow, joined by over 60 other nations. This boycott and the broader sanctions severely exacerbated Cold War tensions and infuriated the Soviet government, which retaliated by leading a revenge boycott of the 1984 Summer Olympics held in Los Angeles.

Initially, the Soviets anticipated a relatively short engagement, planning to secure towns and major roads, stabilize the new Karmal government, and withdraw their forces within six months to a year. However, they were met with fierce and unexpected resistance from the Mujahideen guerrillas, who were highly motivated and adept at fighting in the harsh, cold Afghan terrain. The conflict quickly devolved into a bloody quagmire, trapping the Soviet forces for nine years.

By the mid-1980s, the Soviet contingent had increased significantly to approximately 108,800 troops, and fighting intensified. Despite this, the military and diplomatic costs of the war to the USSR were exceptionally high, draining its already strained economy and facing growing unpopularity at home. By mid-1987, under the leadership of the reformist General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev, the Soviet Union announced its intention to begin withdrawing its forces after securing agreements with the Afghan government. The final troop withdrawal commenced on May 15, 1988, and concluded on February 15, 1989, leaving the Afghan government forces to fight alone against the insurgents. The Soviet-backed government ultimately collapsed in April 1992, just months after the dissolution of the Soviet Union itself.

Enduring Legacies and "Blowback"

Due to its protracted nature, high casualties, and significant drain on resources, the Soviet-Afghan War has often been referred to by Western media as the "Soviet Union's Vietnam War" or the "Bear Trap." The Soviet Union's ultimate failure in the war is widely considered a major contributing factor to its economic stagnation, growing internal dissent, and eventual collapse in 1991. The conflict left a complex and often tragic legacy in both the former Soviet Union and Afghanistan.

Additionally, the United States' policies during the war, particularly its extensive support for various Mujahideen factions, are widely thought to have contributed to a phenomenon known as "blowback"—unintended, negative consequences against American interests. Many scholars and analysts argue that the support for certain extremist elements during the conflict inadvertently helped foster the rise of radical Islamist groups like Al-Qaeda, ultimately leading to the United States entering its own protracted war in Afghanistan following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks.

Frequently Asked Questions About the Soviet-Afghan War

What was the primary cause of the Soviet-Afghan War?
The primary cause was the Soviet Union's intervention to support the communist government of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA) against a widespread insurgency that erupted following the unpopular radical reforms of the 1978 Saur Revolution and internal power struggles within the ruling party.
Who were the Mujahideen, and who supported them?
The Mujahideen were a collective of various Afghan insurgent groups, often referred to as "holy warriors," who fought against the Soviet-backed communist government. They were primarily supported by the United States, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, China, Iran, and the United Kingdom, turning the conflict into a proxy war.
How long did the Soviet-Afghan War last?
The Soviet-Afghan War lasted for nine years, from December 24, 1979, when Soviet troops first entered Afghanistan, until February 15, 1989, when the last Soviet forces withdrew.
What was the "Brezhnev Doctrine" in relation to this conflict?
The Brezhnev Doctrine was a Soviet foreign policy principle asserting the Soviet Union's right to intervene militarily in any socialist country where socialism was perceived to be under threat. It was cited as the justification for the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.
What were the major consequences of the Soviet-Afghan War?
Major consequences included catastrophic human casualties and displacement in Afghanistan, widespread destruction of the country's infrastructure, significant economic and political strain on the Soviet Union contributing to its eventual dissolution, and the rise of radical Islamist groups, which later led to unintended "blowback" for the United States.