World War I: In France, the Battle of Verdun begins.

The Great War: A Global Conflict That Reshaped the 20th Century

The conflict we now universally know as World War I, often abbreviated to WWI or WW1, was originally dubbed the "Great War" by its contemporaries. This monumental international conflict dramatically reshaped the early 20th century, raging from July 28, 1914, to November 11, 1918. Its vast scope encompassed much of Europe, alongside key players like Russia, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire (modern-day Turkey), with fighting extending into the Middle East, Africa, and parts of Asia.

It stands as one of history's deadliest conflicts, claiming an estimated 9 million lives in combat alone. Beyond the battlefields, over 5 million civilians tragically succumbed to the ravages of occupation, bombardment, hunger, or disease. The human cost was further compounded by the genocides perpetrated by the Ottomans and the devastating 1918 Spanish flu pandemic, which, spread by the vast movement of combatants during the war, added many millions more to the global death toll.

By 1914, Europe's Great Powers had solidified into two formidable, opposing alliances. On one side stood the Triple Entente, comprising France, Russia, and Britain. Facing them was the Triple Alliance, made up of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. Tensions, particularly in the volatile Balkans, reached a boiling point on June 28, 1914, following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the Austro-Hungarian heir, by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb nationalist. Austria-Hungary swiftly blamed Serbia, and the complex web of interlocking alliances quickly entangled the major powers in a series of intense diplomatic exchanges known as the "July Crisis."

On July 28, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. Russia, coming to Serbia's defense, triggered a chain reaction, and by August 4, the conflict had expanded dramatically to include Germany, France, and Britain, along with their extensive colonial empires. By November, the Ottoman Empire joined Germany and Austria-Hungary to form the formidable Central Powers. Meanwhile, Italy, shifting its allegiances in April 1915, sided with Britain, France, Russia, and Serbia to become part of the Allied Powers, setting the stage for a truly global confrontation.

The War's Progression and Grueling Fronts

Germany's initial strategy in 1914, famously known as the Schlieffen Plan, aimed to swiftly defeat France on the Western Front before redirecting its forces eastward to neutralize Russia. However, this ambitious plan faltered when the German advance into France was decisively halted at the Marne River. By late 1914, a brutal stalemate had emerged along the Western Front, characterized by a continuous, entrenched line stretching from the English Channel to Switzerland – a grim, static landscape that would see little significant change until 1917.

In stark contrast, the Eastern Front proved far more fluid, with vast swathes of territory repeatedly gained and lost by both Austria-Hungary and Russia. Other significant theatres of conflict included the Middle East, the challenging Alpine Front, and the Balkans, which drew nations like Bulgaria, Romania, and Greece into the devastating war.

Turning Points and the War's End

Shortages caused by the effective Allied naval blockade prompted Germany to make a fateful decision in early 1917: the initiation of unrestricted submarine warfare. This aggressive move dramatically altered the conflict's dynamics, drawing the previously neutral United States into the war on April 6, 1917. Meanwhile, seismic political shifts occurred in Russia. The Bolsheviks seized power during the 1917 October Revolution, culminating in Russia's withdrawal from the war with the March 1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.

Russia's exit freed up significant German forces, which were swiftly transferred to the Western Front. The German General Staff, desperate for a decisive victory before American reinforcements could fully impact the war, launched the massive March 1918 German spring offensive. Despite initial successes, heavy casualties and tenacious Allied defenses soon brought the offensive to a grinding halt. In August, the Allies unleashed their own powerful counter-attack, the Hundred Days Offensive, and although the German army continued to fight hard, it could no longer stem their relentless advance.

As 1918 drew to a close, the Central Powers began to crumble. Bulgaria signed an Armistice on September 29, followed by the Ottomans on October 31, and then Austria-Hungary on November 3. Isolated, facing revolution at home and a military on the brink of mutiny, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated on November 9. The newly formed German government signed the Armistice of November 11, 1918, finally bringing the devastating conflict to a close. The subsequent 1919 Paris Peace Conference imposed various settlements on the defeated powers, the best known being the punitive Treaty of Versailles.

The dissolution of the Russian, German, Ottoman, and Austro-Hungarian empires led to numerous uprisings and the creation of independent states, including Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. However, for reasons still debated by historians, the failure to effectively manage the profound instability and upheaval that resulted from this period tragically contributed to the outbreak of World War II in 1939.

The Battle of Verdun: A Symbol of Enduring Fortitude

Amidst the brutal landscape of the Western Front, one battle stands out for its sheer scale of human suffering and strategic importance: the Battle of Verdun. Fought from February 21 to December 18, 1916, this prolonged engagement became the longest single battle of the First World War, taking place on the hills north of Verdun-sur-Meuse in France.

The German 5th Army launched its attack against the strong defenses of the Fortified Region of Verdun (RFV) and the French Second Army positioned on the right (east) bank of the Meuse River. Drawing on lessons from the Second Battle of Champagne in 1915, the Germans planned to seize the Meuse Heights, an excellent defensive position offering superb observation for artillery fire directly onto Verdun. Their primary hope was to lure the French strategic reserve into a 'meat grinder,' aiming to inflict catastrophic losses with minimal cost to German forces.

Poor weather initially delayed the offensive, but the attack finally commenced on February 21. The Germans rapidly captured Fort Douaumont within the first three days. However, despite inflicting heavy French casualties, their advance then slowed for several days. By March 6, over 20 French divisions had reinforced the RFV, and a more extensive defense in depth had been organized. General Philippe Pétain, commanding the French forces, issued his famous "no retreat" order, decreeing that German attacks were to be met with immediate counter-attacks, even if this exposed French infantry to brutal German artillery fire. By March 29, French guns on the west bank had begun a constant, devastating bombardment of German positions on the east bank, causing immense infantry casualties.

The German offensive was subsequently extended to the west bank of the Meuse, hoping to gain better observation points and eliminate the French artillery firing over the river, but these attacks ultimately failed to reach their objectives. In early May, German tactics shifted again, focusing on localized attacks and counter-attacks. The French momentarily recaptured part of Fort Douaumont, only to be ejected by the Germans who took many prisoners. The Germans then attempted to alternate their attacks on either side of the Meuse, eventually capturing Fort Vaux in June.

The German forces advanced towards the last geographical objectives of their original plan, at Fleury-devant-Douaumont and Fort Souville, driving a deep salient into the French defenses. Fleury was captured, and the Germans came within a mere 4 kilometers (2.5 miles) of the Verdun citadel. However, a critical development occurred in July: the Verdun offensive was significantly scaled back to provide crucial troops, artillery, and ammunition for the burgeoning Battle of the Somme, leading to a similar transfer of the French Tenth Army to the Somme front. Between June 23 and August 17 alone, Fleury changed hands a staggering sixteen times, and a German attack on Fort Souville failed. The offensive was further reduced, but ruses were employed to disguise this change, keeping French troops tied down in the RFV and away from the Somme.

In September and December, determined French counter-offensives reclaimed much lost ground on the east bank, including the pivotal Fort Douaumont and Fort Vaux. The battle ultimately lasted for 302 days, making it the longest and one of the most costly in human history. Historians Hannes Heer and Klaus Naumann calculated in 2000 that the French suffered 377,231 casualties and the Germans 337,000, totaling 714,231 – an average of 70,000 casualties per month. Later, in 2014, William Philpott cited 976,000 casualties for 1916 alone, and 1,250,000 in the vicinity throughout the war. In France, the Battle of Verdun came to symbolize the indomitable determination of the French Army and the utterly destructive, horrifying nature of the war.

Frequently Asked Questions About World War I and Verdun

What was World War I?
World War I (WWI), also known as the First World War or the Great War, was a major international conflict that primarily involved European powers but spread globally, lasting from July 28, 1914, to November 11, 1918.
What were the main alliances in World War I?
The primary alliances were the Allied Powers (initially France, Russia, Britain, later joined by Italy and the United States, among others) and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire).
What caused World War I?
The immediate trigger was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary on June 28, 1914. However, underlying causes included a complex web of interlocking alliances, imperialistic rivalries, militarism, and rising nationalism across Europe, particularly in the Balkans.
When did World War I start and end?
It began on July 28, 1914, with Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on Serbia, and officially ended with the signing of the Armistice of November 11, 1918.
What was the Treaty of Versailles?
The Treaty of Versailles was the most significant of the peace treaties that brought World War I to an end. Signed on June 28, 1919, in Versailles, France, it formally ended the war between Germany and the Allied Powers, imposing harsh terms on Germany.
What was the Battle of Verdun?
The Battle of Verdun was one of the longest and most devastating battles of World War I, fought on the Western Front in France from February 21 to December 18, 1916. It was a prolonged German offensive against French forces, resulting in an enormous number of casualties for both sides and becoming a symbol of French resilience.