José de San Martín, Argentinian general and politician, 1st President of Peru (d. 1850)

José Francisco de San Martín y Matorras, known to history simply as *José de San Martín*, stands as one of the most towering figures in the epic saga of South American independence. Born on February 25, 1778, and passing away on August 17, 1850, this Argentine general earned the revered title of "Liberator" for his pivotal role in freeing Argentina, Chile, and Peru from the clutches of the Spanish Empire. His strategic brilliance and unwavering commitment positioned him as the primary leader of the independence movements across the southern and central regions of the continent, culminating in his service as the Protector of Peru.

Early Life and European Forging

Our journey with *José de San Martín* begins in Yapeyú, Corrientes, a region that is now part of modern-day Argentina, though at the time, it was a distant outpost of the Spanish Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. At the tender age of seven, a young San Martín embarked on a life-altering voyage across the Atlantic, leaving his native land to pursue his education in Málaga, Spain. This early relocation was not just a change of scenery but a deep immersion into European military traditions and enlightenment ideals that would profoundly shape his destiny.

His military career commenced in Spain, where he rose through the ranks, demonstrating exceptional skill and courage. A defining period came in 1808 during the Peninsular War, where he fought against Napoleon's invading French forces. This experience not only honed his strategic capabilities but also exposed him to the broader currents of political change sweeping across Europe. It was in London, during this tumultuous era, that San Martín made crucial connections with fellow South Americans who harbored fervent desires for independence from Spain, laying the groundwork for his future revolutionary endeavors.

Return to South America and the Grand Strategy

In 1812, with a clear vision for a free South America, *José de San Martín* set sail for Buenos Aires, offering his seasoned military expertise to the nascent United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, the precursor to modern-day Argentina. His arrival was a significant moment for the nascent independence movement. After proving his mettle at the Battle of San Lorenzo and briefly commanding the Army of the North in 1814, San Martín began to formulate a daring and audacious plan.

He recognized the immense challenge posed by Spanish forces entrenched in the Viceroyalty of Peru, which perpetually threatened the United Provinces from the north. Instead of a direct, frontal assault over the difficult northern terrain, San Martín envisioned an alternative, unexpected path: a surprise attack from the west. This ambitious objective necessitated the creation of an entirely new fighting force, meticulously trained and equipped, which he famously named the *Army of the Andes*. This formidable army was meticulously organized and prepared in Cuyo Province, Argentina, under his direct command, becoming a symbol of South American resolve.

The Audacious Crossing of the Andes and Chilean Liberation

What followed was one of the most astounding military feats in history: the *Crossing of the Andes*. In early 1817, San Martín led his Army of the Andes over treacherous mountain passes, some reaching altitudes of over 12,000 feet, to surprise the Spanish royalist forces in Chile. This incredible journey, fraught with extreme weather, logistical nightmares, and the sheer physical toll on his troops, showcased San Martín's unparalleled leadership and strategic genius. The element of surprise was complete, catching the Spanish off guard.

Upon descending into Chile, his forces met the Spanish in decisive engagements. The triumph at the Battle of Chacabuco in February 1817 marked a critical victory, weakening royalist control. However, the Spanish attempted a resurgence. It was the crushing victory at the Battle of Maipú in April 1818 that ultimately cemented Chile's independence from Spanish rule. With Chile liberated, San Martín's gaze turned north, towards the heart of Spanish power in South America: Peru.

The Peruvian Campaign and Protectorate

Having secured Chile, *José de San Martín* next embarked on a naval expedition to attack the Spanish stronghold of Lima, Peru, a move that bypassed the formidable land defenses. His forces landed on the Peruvian coast, and through a combination of military pressure and political maneuvering, he began to gain control. On July 12, 1821, after seizing partial control of Lima, a monumental step was taken: San Martín was appointed *Protector of Peru*. This was a provisional head-of-state role, signaling a new era for the region.

Peruvian independence was officially declared on July 28, 1821, a day still celebrated with immense national pride. As Protector, San Martín initiated crucial reforms, laid the foundations for a new government, and worked towards the complete expulsion of Spanish forces. His vision for Peru was not just military liberation but also the establishment of a stable, independent nation.

The Guayaquil Meeting and Later Life

The path to full liberation, however, was complex. On July 26, 1822, *José de San Martín* met in a momentous, closed-door conference with another titan of South American independence, *Simón Bolívar*, in Guayaquil, Ecuador. The details of this historic encounter remain a subject of intense debate among historians, as no official record was kept. What is clear is that following this meeting, Bolívar assumed the task of fully liberating Peru, bringing his successful campaigns from the north to completion. Unexpectedly, San Martín then made the profound decision to leave the country, resigning command of his army and effectively withdrawing from both politics and military life. In 1824, he moved to France, choosing a quiet exile over continued involvement in the complex political landscape of the newly independent nations.

Legacy of a Liberator

*José de San Martín* is not merely a historical figure; he is a revered national hero in Argentina, Chile, and Peru. His name evokes images of courage, strategic genius, and an unwavering dedication to freedom. He is universally recognized as a great military commander and one of the most instrumental figures in the *South American independence* movement against the *Spanish Empire*. His legacy is immortalized through numerous monuments, cities, and institutions across the continent.

In Argentina, his honor is enshrined with the *Order of the Liberator General San Martín* (Orden del Libertador General San Martín), the highest decoration conferred by the Argentine government, a testament to his enduring impact and the profound respect he commands. His contributions shaped the very map and future of South America, leaving an indelible mark as a true *Liberator*.

Frequently Asked Questions about José de San Martín

Who was José de San Martín?
José de San Martín was an Argentine general and a pivotal leader in the South American struggle for independence from the Spanish Empire. He is known as the Liberator of Argentina, Chile, and Peru.
When and where was José de San Martín born?
He was born on February 25, 1778, in Yapeyú, Corrientes, in what is now modern-day Argentina.
What was San Martín's main achievement?
His main achievement was leading the revolutionary forces that secured the independence of Argentina, Chile, and Peru from Spanish colonial rule, most notably through his daring Crossing of the Andes and subsequent military victories.
Why is he called "the Liberator"?
He earned the title "the Liberator" because of his successful military campaigns and strategic leadership that directly resulted in the independence of three major South American nations: Argentina, Chile, and Peru.
What was the significance of the Guayaquil meeting with Simón Bolívar?
The Guayaquil meeting in 1822 between San Martín and Simón Bolívar was a pivotal, though private, discussion about the future of the South American independence movements. Following this meeting, San Martín unexpectedly withdrew from military and political life, leaving Bolívar to complete the liberation of Peru. Its exact details and why San Martín departed remain subjects of historical debate.
Did San Martín fight for independence in Spain before coming to South America?
Yes, José de San Martín had a distinguished military career in Spain, fighting against French invasion during the Peninsular War. This experience honed his military skills before he returned to South America to lead the independence movement.