World War II: The United States and the Philippine Commonwealth begin a month-long battle to retake Manila from Japan.
The Commonwealth of the Philippines: A Pivotal Transition to Sovereignty
What was the Commonwealth of the Philippines? The Commonwealth of the Philippines (Spanish: Commonwealth de Filipinas or Mancomunidad de Filipinas; Tagalog: Kómonwélt ng Pilipinas or Malasariling Pámahalaán ng Pilipinas) served as the crucial administrative body that governed the Philippines from 1935 until its full independence in 1946. This period, however, included a significant interruption: a period of government in exile from 1942 to 1945 due to the brutal Japanese occupation during the Second World War.
Why was the Commonwealth established? Its establishment marked a momentous step in the Philippines' journey towards self-rule. It directly followed the passage of the Tydings–McDuffie Act (also known as the Philippine Independence Act) by the United States Congress in 1934. This landmark legislation provided for a 10-year transition period for the Philippines to gain full independence from American colonial rule, replacing the previous United States territorial administration known as the Insular Government. The Commonwealth was specifically designed as a preparatory, transitional administration, intended to equip the Filipino nation with the necessary governmental infrastructure and experience for complete sovereignty. Throughout its existence, the United States retained control over the Philippines' foreign affairs, underscoring its transitional status.
Governance and Nation-Building under the Commonwealth
During its more than a decade of operation, the Commonwealth government was characterized by a robust executive branch and an independent Supreme Court, reflecting a commitment to democratic governance. How was the Commonwealth's legislature structured? Initially, its legislature was unicameral, meaning it consisted of a single legislative chamber. However, it later transitioned to a bicameral system, featuring two houses, akin to many modern democracies. The Nacionalista Party, a dominant political force, largely controlled the legislative process throughout this period.
Significant strides were made in nation-building and social reforms. In a landmark decision in 1937, the government officially selected Tagalog, the widely spoken language in Manila and its surrounding provinces, as the basis for the national language. This move, while aiming to foster national unity, set in motion a long process for its general adoption and development as the official Filipino language. Furthermore, a progressive step for the era was the adoption of women's suffrage, granting women the right to vote and participate in the political process. Economically, the country experienced a recovery, with its economy reaching pre-Great Depression levels before the onset of the Japanese occupation in 1942.
The Commonwealth in Exile and the Dawn of Full Independence
The progress of the Commonwealth was tragically interrupted by the Second World War. Following the Japanese invasion and occupation of the Philippines in 1942, the Commonwealth government, led by its first President, Manuel L. Quezon, went into exile in the United States. During this period, a Japanese-sponsored Second Philippine Republic was established in Manila, though it lacked widespread international recognition and legitimacy among Filipinos. The legitimate Commonwealth government-in-exile continued to operate and advocate for the liberation of the Philippines.
When did the Commonwealth of the Philippines end? The Commonwealth formally ended on July 4, 1946, a date now celebrated as Philippine–American Friendship Day. On this momentous occasion, the Philippines claimed its full sovereignty as an independent nation, fulfilling the provisions enshrined in Article XVIII of its meticulously crafted 1935 Constitution. This marked the culmination of decades of struggle and preparation for self-governance.
The Battle of Manila: A City's Ordeal and Liberation
What was the significance of the Battle of Manila during World War II? The Battle of Manila (Filipino: Labanan sa Maynila; Spanish: Batalla de Manila), fought from February 3 to March 3, 1945, was a brutal and decisive engagement within the broader Philippine campaign of 1944–1945 during the Second World War. This month-long urban combat pitted combined forces from the United States Army and Filipino guerilla units against entrenched Japanese Imperial Army troops within Manila, the capital city of the Philippines.
Unprecedented Devastation and Human Cost
The Battle of Manila stands as one of the most tragic and devastating urban battles in the Pacific theater of World War II. What were the consequences of the Battle of Manila? The fighting resulted in an appalling humanitarian catastrophe, with estimates indicating the death of over 100,000 Filipino civilians. Japanese forces, during their final stand, committed horrific atrocities, including widespread mass murder, rape, and destruction against the civilian population. Concurrent American military operations, particularly the extensive use of artillery and aerial bombardment against heavily fortified Japanese positions, also contributed significantly to the high number of civilian casualties and the wholesale destruction of the city.
The intensity of the combat led to the near-complete devastation of Manila. Much of the city's rich architectural and cultural heritage, some of which dated back to its founding during the Spanish colonial era, was irrevocably lost. Iconic districts and structures, including the historic walled city of Intramuros with its centuries-old churches, universities, and administrative buildings, were reduced to rubble. Consequently, Manila earned the unenviable distinction of becoming one of the most devastated capital cities of the entire war, alongside European counterparts like Berlin and Warsaw, underscoring the immense scale of destruction it endured.
End of Occupation and a New Beginning
The victorious conclusion of the Battle of Manila effectively ended nearly three years of brutal Japanese military occupation in the Philippines, which had begun in 1942. The capture of the city was a critical strategic objective for General Douglas MacArthur, who famously vowed "I shall return" to liberate the Philippines. Its fall was marked as a key to victory in the Allied campaign of reconquest. To date, the Battle of Manila remains the last of the many battles fought within the historical confines of the city, symbolizing both immense suffering and ultimate liberation for the Filipino people.