Joseph E. Johnston, American general and politician (d. 1891)

Joseph Eggleston Johnston (February 3, 1807 – March 21, 1891) was an exceptionally skilled American career army officer whose long and distinguished service spanned over half a century, witnessing significant transformations in the United States. His career began in the pre-Civil War era, where he gained invaluable experience, and culminated in his prominent, albeit often challenging, role as one of the most senior generals of the Confederate States Army.

Johnston's foundational military education was acquired at the prestigious United States Military Academy at West Point, New York. Graduating in 1829, he was notably in the same class as Robert E. Lee, a peer with whom his career would become intricately linked, both as a colleague and, at times, a successor. His training as a civil engineer provided him with a practical and analytical mind, skills that proved invaluable for logistics, fortifications, and understanding terrain in military campaigns. Prior to the Civil War, Johnston served extensively on various frontiers, including Florida, Texas, and Kansas, participating with distinction in the challenging Seminole Wars and the Mexican-American War (1846–1848). These conflicts honed his tactical acumen and leadership capabilities. By 1860, his impressive service had elevated him to the significant rank of Brigadier General, serving as the Quartermaster General of the U.S. Army, a critical administrative and logistical role that underscored his organizational prowess.

The outbreak of the American Civil War presented a profound dilemma for Southern officers like Johnston. Upon Virginia's secession from the Union, he resigned his U.S. Army commission and pledged his loyalty to the Confederacy, becoming one of its five full generals, alongside figures like Robert E. Lee and P.G.T. Beauregard. However, Johnston's effectiveness and strategic influence during the war were frequently undermined by persistent and well-documented tensions with Confederate President Jefferson Davis. Their disagreements stemmed from differing strategic philosophies – Johnston often favored a cautious, defensive approach aimed at preserving his army, while Davis frequently desired more aggressive, offensive actions – coupled with personality clashes and perceived slights, which ultimately impacted command decisions and Johnston's assignments.

While decisive victory often eluded campaigns he personally commanded, Johnston was renowned for his ability to preserve his forces, even in retreat, a valuable trait in a war of attrition. He held the senior Confederate command at the First Battle of Bull Run (Manassas) in July 1861. Though the strategic reinforcement he provided by rapidly moving his troops from the Shenandoah Valley was crucial to the Confederate victory, the tactical credit for the battlefield success is generally attributed to his subordinate, P.G.T. Beauregard. In 1862, Johnston was charged with defending the Confederate capital, Richmond, Virginia, during the critical Peninsula Campaign. Facing Union Major General George B. McClellan's significantly superior forces, Johnston conducted a masterly, if controversial, strategic withdrawal, delaying the Union advance until he was severely wounded at the Battle of Seven Pines (Fair Oaks) on May 31, 1862. His injury necessitated his replacement by Robert E. Lee, marking a pivotal shift in the Eastern Theater's command structure and strategy.

After recovering, Johnston was placed in command of the Department of the West in 1863, a vast and challenging theater that included the besieged Vicksburg. His efforts to relieve the city were hampered by logistical difficulties and fragmented forces. In 1864, he assumed command of the Army of Tennessee, directly opposing Union Major General William Tecumseh Sherman in the arduous Atlanta Campaign. Johnston employed his characteristic strategy of defensive maneuvering, fortifying positions, and avoiding direct, large-scale engagements to conserve his army and draw out Sherman's supply lines. Despite his effective delaying tactics, President Davis, frustrated by the lack of aggressive offensive action, controversially relieved Johnston of command outside Atlanta and replaced him with the more audacious but ultimately less successful General John Bell Hood. In the final, desperate days of the war, as the Confederacy crumbled, Johnston was returned to command of the few remaining forces in the Carolinas Campaign, where he ultimately surrendered to Sherman, recognizing the futility of further resistance. Remarkably, despite their fierce wartime opposition, Union Generals Ulysses S. Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman both expressed high praise for Johnston's professional conduct and generalship, developing a strong personal friendship with him in the post-war years.

Following the war, Joseph E. Johnston embarked on a successful civilian career. He served as an executive in both the railroad and insurance industries, demonstrating his adaptability and administrative skills. He was also active in politics, serving a single term as a Democrat in the United States House of Representatives, representing Virginia from 1879 to 1881. Later, he received a federal appointment as Commissioner of Railroads under President Grover Cleveland, a testament to his continued national standing and reconciliation. Johnston's life came to a poignant end on March 21, 1891, when he died of pneumonia, just ten days after attending the funeral of his old adversary and friend, William Tecumseh Sherman, in pouring rain, a final gesture of respect that underscored the enduring bonds forged between professional soldiers, even across former battle lines.

Frequently Asked Questions about Joseph E. Johnston

Who was Joseph E. Johnston?
Joseph Eggleston Johnston was a highly experienced American military officer who served with distinction in the U.S. Army during the Mexican-American War and Seminole Wars, later becoming one of the most senior and influential generals in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War.
What was Joseph E. Johnston's role in the U.S. Army before the Civil War?
Before the Civil War, Johnston was a career officer in the U.S. Army, trained as a civil engineer at West Point. He participated in significant conflicts like the Seminole Wars and the Mexican-American War, rising to the rank of Brigadier General and serving as the Quartermaster General of the U.S. Army by 1860.
Why did Joseph E. Johnston have conflicts with Jefferson Davis?
Johnston's effectiveness was often hampered by persistent tensions with Confederate President Jefferson Davis. Their disagreements primarily stemmed from contrasting strategic approaches—Johnston favored cautious, defensive tactics aimed at preserving his army, while Davis often sought more aggressive, offensive actions. These professional differences were compounded by personality clashes.
What major Civil War campaigns did Joseph E. Johnston command?
Johnston commanded Confederate forces in several key campaigns, including the First Battle of Bull Run (Manassas) in 1861 (where he was the senior commander), the 1862 Peninsula Campaign defending Richmond, the Department of the West in 1863, and the critical Atlanta Campaign in 1864. He also led the remaining Confederate forces in the Carolinas Campaign at the war's conclusion.
Did Joseph E. Johnston have a good relationship with Union generals?
Yes, despite being adversaries on the battlefield, Joseph E. Johnston earned the professional respect of prominent Union generals, particularly Ulysses S. Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman. Following the war, he developed strong personal friendships with both Grant and Sherman, symbolizing the post-war reconciliation between former combatants.
What was Joseph E. Johnston's post-Civil War career like?
After the Civil War, Johnston transitioned to civilian life, serving as an executive in the railroad and insurance industries. He also pursued a political career, serving one term as a U.S. Representative from Virginia, and later received a federal appointment as Commissioner of Railroads under President Grover Cleveland.