Second Sino-Japanese War: Harbin, Manchuria, falls to Japan.

The Second Sino-Japanese War: A Defining Conflict of the 20th Century

The Second Sino-Japanese War, a brutal and protracted military conflict primarily waged between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan, unfolded over eight tumultuous years from 1937 to 1945. This immense struggle constituted the Chinese theater of the broader Pacific Theater of the Second World War, though many historians consider its full-scale eruption in Asia as the true commencement of World War II globally. Its impact reshaped geopolitics in Asia and reverberated across the world.

Origins and Escalation: The Path to Total War

The conventional dating for the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War is 7 July 1937, marked by the pivotal Marco Polo Bridge Incident. This event, which began as a relatively minor dispute between Japanese and Chinese troops near Peking (modern-day Beijing), swiftly escalated into a full-scale invasion by Japanese forces. However, the roots of this conflict run far deeper, stemming from decades of an aggressive Japanese imperialist policy. Japan, an island nation with limited natural resources, relentlessly pursued expansion to secure vital access to raw materials, food supplies, and a robust labor force for its burgeoning industrial and military ambitions.

The period following World War I saw increasing internal and external pressures on Japan's political landscape. Domestically, there was growing dissent, with leftist movements advocating for universal suffrage and greater rights for industrial workers. Economically, the rise of textile production in Chinese mills began to adversely affect Japanese exports, and the global economic downturn of the Great Depression delivered a significant blow to Japan's trade. These mounting stresses contributed to the rise of a fervent militant nationalism, culminating in the ascension of a powerful militarist faction to political dominance. This faction, which reached its zenith under the leadership of Prime Minister Hideki Tojo's cabinet within the Imperial Rule Assistance Association, operated with the ultimate authority of Emperor Hirohito.

A significant precursor to the 1937 outbreak was the Mukden Incident of 1931. In this engineered event, a segment of the Japanese Kwantung Army detonated a small amount of dynamite near a Japanese-owned railway in Manchuria, falsely blaming Chinese dissidents. This "incident" served as a pretext for the full-scale Japanese invasion of Manchuria. The Chinese forces were overwhelmed, leading to the establishment of Manchukuo, a Japanese puppet state. Many historians, citing this event and the subsequent Japanese entrenchment, contend that 1931 truly marks the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War, with the period between 1931 and 1937 characterized by continuous localized skirmishes and "incidents" as Japan steadily expanded its influence.

The Widening Conflict: China's Role in World War II

Following the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, Japanese forces rapidly achieved significant tactical victories. Within months, they captured major Chinese cities, including Beijing and Shanghai, before seizing the then-Chinese capital of Nanjing in December 1937. The fall of Nanjing was tragically accompanied by the infamous Rape of Nanjing, a horrific atrocity where Japanese troops engaged in widespread murder, rape, and looting, resulting in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants. After failing to halt the Japanese advance during the Battle of Wuhan in 1938, the Chinese central government, under Chiang Kai-shek, was forced to relocate deep into the Chinese interior, establishing a new wartime capital in Chongqing (formerly Chungking).

Despite these early setbacks, China continued to resist fiercely. A crucial turning point came with the signing of the Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact in August 1937, which provided the Nationalist Army of China and the Chinese Air Force with vital material support, including military advisors, aircraft, and arms from the Soviet Union. By 1939, after the Chinese achieved notable victories in key battles like Changsha and Guangxi, and with Japan's supply lines stretched perilously deep into China's vast interior, the war effectively reached a strategic stalemate. While the Japanese struggled to pacify the Chinese Nationalist forces, they also faced relentless guerrilla warfare and sabotage campaigns from Chinese Communist forces operating out of their stronghold in Shaanxi. However, Japan did succeed in a year-long campaign in southern Guangxi, eventually occupying Nanning, which critically severed the last sea access route to Chongqing, the wartime capital.

While Japan managed to occupy and administer many of China's large cities and vital transportation arteries, they lacked the immense manpower required to control the vast Chinese countryside, leaving significant areas under Chinese resistance. In a testament to China's continued defiance, Chinese Nationalist forces launched a large-scale winter offensive in November 1939, and Chinese Communist forces initiated their own significant counteroffensive in central China in August 1940.

During this period, the United States progressively increased its economic pressure on Japan. This culminated in a series of escalating boycotts and sanctions, most notably the crucial cutting off of steel and petrol exports to Japan by June 1941. Additionally, American volunteers, such as the famed "Flying Tigers" – a group of mercenary pilots – provided direct air support and training to China, battling Japanese aerial superiority.

The Immense Human Cost and Devastation

The Second Sino-Japanese War stands as the largest and most devastating Asian conflict of the 20th century. It accounted for the overwhelming majority of both civilian and military casualties in the wider Pacific War. Conservative estimates suggest that between 10 and 25 million Chinese civilians perished, along with over 4 million Chinese and Japanese military personnel who were either missing or died from direct war-related violence, famine, and associated causes. The sheer scale of the suffering and loss has led some historians and commentators to refer to this conflict as "the Asian Holocaust."

Strategic Phases and Turning Points

The global nature of World War II dramatically altered the Sino-Japanese conflict. In December 1941, Japan launched a surprise attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, followed by declarations of war against the United States and other Allied powers. In response, the United States formally declared war on Japan and significantly increased its material aid to China under the Lend-Lease Act, providing China with a total of $1.6 billion (equivalent to approximately $18.4 billion when adjusted for inflation). With the crucial Burma Road supply route cut off by Japanese advances, the U.S. initiated the arduous "Hump" airlift operation, flying vital supplies over the treacherous Himalayan Mountains into China.

Despite the increased Allied pressure, Japan launched its ambitious Operation Ichi-Go in 1944, a massive offensive aimed at capturing Allied airfields in Henan and securing the rail lines in central and southern China, including a push towards Changsha. While Japan achieved significant territorial gains, the operation ultimately failed to achieve its strategic objective of forcing China's surrender or knocking it out of the war.

International Support and Allied Cooperation

As the war progressed into 1945, the Chinese military, often aided by Allied forces, began to reclaim lost territory. The Chinese Expeditionary Force, fighting alongside Allied troops in Burma, resumed its advance and successfully completed the Ledo Road, a crucial overland supply route linking India to China. Simultaneously, China launched large-scale counteroffensives across South China, successfully retaking key areas such as West Hunan and Guangxi. These coordinated efforts significantly contributed to the overall Allied strategy in the Pacific.

Conclusion of the War and China's Emergence

The Second Sino-Japanese War formally concluded with Japan's unconditional surrender on 2 September 1945, following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the Soviet invasion of Manchuria. China emerged from the war as one of the "Big Four" Allied powers, alongside the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union. As a result of its immense sacrifices and contributions, China regained all territories lost to Japan, including Manchuria and Taiwan, and secured a prestigious position as one of the five permanent members of the newly formed United Nations Security Council, signifying its elevated status on the global stage.

Key Precursor Event: The Defense of Harbin (1932)

The Defense of Harbin, a significant engagement during the early phase of the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, occurred from 25 January to 4 February 1932. This military operation saw Chinese forces attempting to resist the Empire of Japan's advance into the strategic city of Harbin, a major railway hub in northeastern China. While ultimately unsuccessful, leading to Harbin's occupation by Japanese forces, it highlights the ongoing Chinese resistance against Japanese aggression even before the widely recognized outbreak of full-scale war in 1937.

Frequently Asked Questions About the Second Sino-Japanese War

When did the Second Sino-Japanese War begin?
Conventionally, the war is dated from the Marco Polo Bridge Incident on 7 July 1937. However, many historians consider the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, following the Mukden Incident in 1931, as the true beginning of the broader conflict.
Who were the main belligerents in the Second Sino-Japanese War?
The primary parties involved were the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan.
Was the Second Sino-Japanese War part of World War II?
Yes, it constituted the Chinese theater of the wider Pacific Theater of the Second World War. Some scholars even consider its full-scale beginning in 1937 as the start of World War II itself.
What was the human cost of the Second Sino-Japanese War?
It was the deadliest conflict in Asia during the 20th century, resulting in an estimated 10 to 25 million Chinese civilian deaths and over 4 million military casualties from both China and Japan. The war's devastation has led some to call it "the Asian Holocaust."
How did the United States support China during the war?
Before 1941, the U.S. implemented boycotts and sanctions against Japan. After Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, the U.S. significantly increased aid through the Lend-Lease Act, providing billions of dollars in supplies, and American volunteer pilots like the Flying Tigers also assisted China directly.
What was the significance of the Mukden Incident?
The Mukden Incident in 1931 was a false flag operation used by Japan as a pretext to invade and occupy Manchuria, establishing the puppet state of Manchukuo. It marked a critical escalation of Japanese aggression in China.
What was the "Rape of Nanjing"?
The Rape of Nanjing refers to the horrific atrocities committed by Japanese troops after the capture of Nanjing in December 1937, involving widespread murder, rape, and looting against Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants.