Peninsular War: Siege of Cádiz begins.

The Peninsular War (1807–1814): A Struggle for Iberian Sovereignty

The Peninsular War, a pivotal and intensely brutal military conflict, raged across the Iberian Peninsula from 1807 to 1814. This prolonged struggle saw the combined forces of Spain, Portugal, and the United Kingdom fiercely resist the invading and occupying armies of the First French Empire, led by Napoleon Bonaparte. Often considered a crucial theatre within the broader Napoleonic Wars, the conflict in Spain is also known as the Spanish War of Independence, a term reflecting the deep nationalist sentiment that fueled the widespread popular resistance against French rule.

The war's origins lie in Napoleon's strategic ambitions and a deceptive alliance. It initially commenced in 1807 when French and allied Spanish armies, under the guise of implementing the Treaty of Fontainebleau, invaded and occupied Portugal, a traditional British ally, by transiting through Spanish territory. However, the situation dramatically escalated in 1808 after Napoleonic France systematically occupied Spain itself, despite it having been a nominal ally. This betrayal culminated in the infamous Abdications of Bayonne, where Napoleon compelled King Ferdinand VII and his father, Charles IV, to relinquish the Spanish throne. Napoleon then installed his elder brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as the new King of Spain (Joseph I) and promulgated the Bayonne Constitution, an attempt to introduce Napoleonic-era reforms.

However, the vast majority of Spaniards vehemently rejected this imposed French rule and the foreign monarch. Their rejection ignited a fierce and bloody war, fought with unprecedented ferocity, to expel the invaders and reclaim their national sovereignty. This protracted conflict on the peninsula only concluded in 1814, coinciding with the defeat of Napoleon by the Sixth Coalition in Europe. The Peninsular War holds significant historical importance as one of the first major wars of national liberation and is particularly notable for the widespread and highly effective emergence of large-scale guerrilla warfare, a tactic that profoundly influenced military strategy thereafter.

The Uprising and the Formation of Resistance

In Spain, the Peninsular War officially erupted with the "Dos de Mayo Uprising" (Second of May Uprising) on 2 May 1808, a spontaneous and violent popular revolt in Madrid against the French occupation. The war then continued relentlessly until 17 April 1814, culminating in the restoration of the legitimate Spanish monarch, Ferdinand VII. The French occupation had devastating consequences for Spain's administrative structure, leading to its complete collapse and fragmentation into numerous quarreling provincial juntas (local and regional governing councils) across the nation. This period remains etched in Spanish history as one of the bloodiest events in its modern era, with human losses in relative terms even surpassing those of the Spanish Civil War.

Amidst the chaos, a reconstituted national government, known as the Cortes of Cádiz, was formed. Operating effectively as a government-in-exile, it fortified itself in the strategically secure port city of Cádiz from 1810. Despite its legitimacy and efforts to govern, the Cortes faced immense challenges; it was effectively besieged by approximately 70,000 French troops and, consequently, struggled to raise and equip effective regular armies to confront the occupation directly.

Crucially, British and Portuguese forces, under the command of figures like Lieutenant General Sir Arthur Wellesley (who would later become the renowned 1st Duke of Wellington), successfully secured Portugal, transforming it into a vital logistical hub and a secure operational base. From this stronghold, they launched relentless campaigns against the French army in Spain and supplied the Spanish resistance whenever possible. While the regular Spanish armies faced numerous defeats, their persistent efforts, combined with the tireless and omnipresent actions of Spanish guerrillas, succeeded in tying down vast numbers of Napoleon's elite troops. By restricting French control over vast swathes of territory, these combined allied forces—both regular armies and irregular partisan fighters—prevented Napoleon's marshals from fully subduing the rebellious Spanish provinces, ensuring the war continued through years of costly stalemate.

Key Allied Military Leadership and Strategy

The British Army, under the strategic brilliance of then Lieutenant General Sir Arthur Wellesley, played a crucial role. Wellesley's forces not only guarded Portugal, notably through the formidable Lines of Torres Vedras, a series of defensive fortifications that effectively protected Lisbon, but also campaigned extensively against the French in Spain. These campaigns were conducted in close coordination with the reformed Portuguese army. The once demoralized Portuguese military underwent a significant transformation; it was thoroughly reorganized and refitted under the command of General William Beresford, who had been appointed commander-in-chief of the Portuguese forces by the exiled Portuguese royal family. This revitalized army fought with distinction as an integral part of the combined Anglo-Portuguese Army under Wellesley's overall command.

Turning the Tide: The Campaigns of 1812-1814

A significant turning point in the Peninsular War occurred in 1812. As Napoleon embarked on his ill-fated and disastrous French invasion of Russia with a massive army, diverting critical resources and experienced troops from the Iberian Peninsula, a combined allied army under Wellesley seized the opportunity. Pushing deep into Spain, Wellesley achieved a decisive victory over the French at the Battle of Salamanca in July 1812, a strategic triumph that allowed the allies to briefly capture the Spanish capital, Madrid.

The following year brought further allied successes. In June 1813, Wellesley scored another monumental victory over King Joseph Bonaparte's army at the Battle of Vitoria. This defeat effectively broke the back of French power in Spain. Pursued relentlessly by the converging armies of Britain, Spain, and Portugal, Marshal Jean-de-Dieu Soult, facing insufficient support from a severely depleted France, led his exhausted and demoralized French forces in a fighting withdrawal across the Pyrenees during the harsh winter of 1813–1814, marking the end of significant French presence in the peninsula.

The "Spanish Ulcer" and its Enduring Legacy

The years of intense fighting in Spain proved to be an immense and crippling burden on France's formidable Grande Armée. While French forces often achieved tactical victories in set-piece battles, they were ultimately worn down and defeated by the relentless attrition of the war. Their communication lines and supply chains were severely tested and frequently disrupted, and their units were constantly isolated, harassed, or overwhelmed by partisan fighters waging an intense guerrilla war characterized by swift raids and ambushes. Though the regular Spanish armies were repeatedly beaten and driven to the peripheries, they invariably regrouped, relentlessly hounded, and demoralized the French troops, preventing any lasting French pacification of the territory. This continuous and costly drain on French resources, troops, and morale led Napoleon himself, who had unwittingly provoked a total war that consumed his empire's strength, to famously label the conflict the "Spanish Ulcer."

The profound period of war and revolution ignited by Napoleon's occupation also sparked significant political and social transformation within Spain. The Cortes of Cádiz, during the siege, promulgated the Spanish Constitution of 1812, also known as "La Pepa." This highly influential liberal document became a cornerstone of European liberalism, advocating for popular sovereignty, separation of powers, and individual rights. However, its progressive ideals were tragically short-lived, as Ferdinand VII, upon his return to the throne, promptly revoked it and restored absolutist rule.

The devastating burden of the war irrevocably destroyed the social and economic fabric of both Portugal and Spain, ushering in an era marked by profound social turbulence, increased political instability, and prolonged economic stagnation. The conflict's legacy also included a series of devastating civil wars between liberal and absolutist factions, often led by officers trained and experienced in the Peninsular War, which persisted in Iberia until the mid-19th century (around 1850). Furthermore, the cumulative crises and disruptions caused by the invasion, revolution, and subsequent restoration were a primary catalyst for the independence movements across the Atlantic. This period directly led to the independence of most of Spain's vast American colonies and the eventual independence of Brazil, which remained a monarchy after severing its ties with Portugal.

The Critical Siege of Cádiz (1810-1812)

The Siege of Cádiz stands as one of the most strategically significant and enduring sieges of the Peninsular War. From 5 February 1810 to 24 August 1812, a formidable French army, initially commanded by Marshals Claude Victor and later by Nicolas Jean-de-Dieu Soult, laid siege to the vital Spanish naval base of Cádiz. Following the French occupation of Seville, Cádiz had become the provisional seat of Spanish power, serving as the last stronghold of independent Spain.

Defending the city were initially around 2,000 Spanish troops, who, as the lengthy siege progressed, received crucial aid from approximately 10,000 Spanish reinforcements, as well as vital British and Portuguese troops. The city's natural defenses, its powerful fortifications, and the British naval superiority which ensured sea access, made it an exceptionally difficult target for the French.

During the siege, which lasted an arduous two and a half years, the Cortes of Cádiz, acting as a parliamentary Regency in the absence of the deposed Ferdinand VII, meticulously drafted and eventually promulgated the aforementioned liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812. This constitution, designed to significantly reduce the strength of the monarchy and establish a constitutional government, became a beacon of liberal aspirations, although it was regrettably revoked by Ferdinand VII upon his return to the throne.

Despite several attempts by the allies to lift the siege, French pressure remained immense. In October 1810, a mixed Anglo-Spanish relief force embarked on a disastrous landing attempt at Fuengirola. A second relief effort was mounted at Tarifa in 1811. Moreover, even a significant allied victory at the Battle of Barrosa in March 1811, where Marshal Victor's detached French force of 15,000-20,000 men was defeated, did not directly lead to the lifting of the protracted siege.

How was the Siege of Cádiz finally lifted?

Ultimately, it was the strategic brilliance of Arthur Wellesley and the broader allied successes elsewhere in Spain that directly led to the lifting of the Cádiz siege. In 1812, Wellesley's decisive victory at the Battle of Salamanca forced the French troops to retreat from Andalusia, including their positions around Cádiz. The fear of being cut off by the advancing Coalition armies compelled the French to withdraw, thereby ending the siege. The survival of the Spanish government within Cádiz and its subsequent use as a critical jump-off point for Coalition forces contributed decisively to the eventual liberation of Spain from French occupation.

Frequently Asked Questions about the Peninsular War

What was the Peninsular War?
The Peninsular War was a major military conflict fought in the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) from 1807 to 1814, pitting the combined forces of Spain, Portugal, and the United Kingdom against Napoleon Bonaparte's invading and occupying armies of the First French Empire.
When did the Peninsular War take place?
It spanned from 1807 to 1814, overlapping with the broader Napoleonic Wars.
Who were the main belligerents in the Peninsular War?
The primary belligerents were France on one side, and a coalition of Spain, Portugal, and the United Kingdom on the other. Spanish popular resistance played a massive role.
Why did the Peninsular War start?
It began with Napoleon's invasion of Portugal in 1807, followed by his strategic deceit in 1808 leading to the occupation of Spain, the forced abdication of the Spanish monarchy, and the installation of his brother Joseph Bonaparte as king, which sparked widespread Spanish resistance.
What was the "Spanish Ulcer"?
The "Spanish Ulcer" was Napoleon Bonaparte's own term for the Peninsular War. He used it to describe the continuous, draining effect of the conflict on French resources, manpower, and morale, as it tied down vast numbers of his troops in a brutal and unwinnable guerrilla campaign, severely weakening his empire.
What was the significance of guerrilla warfare in the Peninsular War?
Guerrilla warfare (meaning "little war") was paramount. Spanish irregular forces, or "guerrilleros," constantly harassed French communication lines, ambushed patrols, and tied down large detachments of troops, preventing French consolidation of control and significantly contributing to their eventual defeat.
What was the Cortes of Cádiz and the 1812 Constitution?
The Cortes of Cádiz was a national assembly, essentially a government-in-exile, that convened in the besieged city of Cádiz. During the war, it drafted and promulgated the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812, a foundational document for European liberalism, though it was later revoked by King Ferdinand VII.
How did the Peninsular War impact Spain and Portugal?
The war devastated both nations economically and socially, leading to long periods of political instability, civil wars between liberal and absolutist factions, and widespread social turbulence. It also significantly contributed to the independence movements in most of Spain's American colonies and Brazil.
What role did Arthur Wellesley (Duke of Wellington) play?
Arthur Wellesley, later the Duke of Wellington, commanded the British and Anglo-Portuguese forces. His strategic genius, particularly in utilizing Portugal as a secure base and achieving decisive victories at battles like Salamanca and Vitoria, was crucial to the allied triumph in the peninsula.
What was the Siege of Cádiz?
The Siege of Cádiz was a lengthy French siege (1810-1812) of the Spanish port city of Cádiz, which served as the seat of the Spanish government (the Cortes of Cádiz) during the war. Despite enduring two and a half years of French bombardment, the city never fell due to strong defenses and British naval support, eventually being relieved when French forces withdrew from Andalusia after the Battle of Salamanca.