Events on February 6 in history

The first 86 African American immigrants sponsored by the American Colonization Society depart New York to start a settlement in present-day Liberia.

Understanding African Americans: Identity, History, and Demographic Significance

African Americans, also commonly referred to as Black Americans and historically as Afro-Americans, represent a significant ethnic group within the United States. This group comprises Americans with partial or total ancestry derived from any of the diverse Black racial groups found across the continent of Africa. Fundamentally, the term "African American" typically denotes the descendants of enslaved Africans who were brought to and resided within the geographical boundaries of what is now the United States.

While some Black immigrants who have recently arrived in the U.S., or their children born here, may eventually choose to identify as African American, the vast majority of first-generation immigrants from African nations generally do not. Instead, these individuals often prefer to identify more closely with their specific nation of origin, such as Nigerian, Ethiopian, or Ghanaian, reflecting a strong connection to their distinct cultural heritage.

Demographic Profile and Ancestry

African Americans constitute the second-largest racial group in the U.S., following White Americans, and are the third-largest ethnic group overall, after Hispanic and Latino Americans. The predominant lineage of most African Americans traces back to the enslaved people within the present-day United States, establishing a unique shared history and cultural identity. Genetic studies typically indicate that, on average, African Americans possess ancestry primarily from West and Central Africa, alongside a notable proportion of European descent. Furthermore, a smaller but significant number also carry Native American and other ancestral influences, reflecting the complex historical interactions and genetic mixing that occurred over centuries.

It is important to note the distinctions in self-identification among various Black populations in the U.S. According to data from the U.S. Census Bureau, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American. An overwhelming majority—approximately 95%—of African immigrants identify instead with their own specific ethnicities or national origins. Similarly, immigrants from certain Caribbean and Latin American nations, along with their descendants, may or may not choose to self-identify with the term "African American," often preferring designations like Haitian American, Jamaican American, or Afro-Cuban, reflecting their distinct cultural and historical narratives.

A Journey Through History: From Enslavement to Empowerment

The profound history of African Americans commenced in the 16th century, primarily involving the brutal transatlantic slave trade. Africans, predominantly from West Africa, were forcibly captured and sold to European slave traders. They endured the horrific Middle Passage, a perilous journey across the Atlantic Ocean, to the Thirteen Colonies (the precursors to the United States). Upon their arrival in the Americas, they were sold into chattel slavery to European colonists and subjected to forced labor, most notably on agricultural plantations, particularly in the Southern colonies, where cash crops like cotton, tobacco, and sugar fueled the economy.

Despite the pervasive system of slavery, a resilient few managed to attain freedom through various means, including manumission (the act of a slave owner freeing their slaves) or daring escapes. These individuals often established independent communities, some even before and during the American Revolution, laying foundational elements for free Black society.

Following the formal establishment of the United States in 1783, the vast majority of Black people remained enslaved. This institution was most heavily concentrated in the American South, where the agricultural economy depended on forced labor. It was not until the tumultuous period of the Civil War (1861-1865) and its conclusion that approximately four million enslaved people were finally liberated, primarily through the Emancipation Proclamation and the subsequent 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.

The Reconstruction Era (1865-1877) immediately after the Civil War marked a period of significant, albeit brief, progress. African Americans gained crucial constitutional rights, including citizenship (14th Amendment) and the right to vote (15th Amendment). However, the rise of White supremacy, coupled with the implementation of discriminatory Black Codes and later Jim Crow laws, systematically treated them as second-class citizens and led to their widespread disenfranchisement, effectively stripping them of their political power in the South.

These dire circumstances began to shift significantly throughout the 20th century, propelled by a confluence of factors: their critical participation in major U.S. military conflicts (such as World War I and II, which often highlighted the hypocrisy of fighting for freedom abroad while denied it at home), substantial migration out of the South to Northern and Western cities during the Great Migration (which transformed the demographic and political landscape of the nation), and the elimination of legal racial segregation through landmark Supreme Court decisions (like Brown v. Board of Education) and federal legislation. Central to this transformation was the monumental Civil Rights Movement of the mid-20th century, which vigorously sought to achieve full political, social, and economic freedom and equality for African Americans. This sustained struggle culminated in legislative victories like the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

A profound milestone in this ongoing journey towards equality occurred in 2008, when Barack Obama made history by becoming the first African American to be elected President of the United States, signifying a remarkable achievement in the nation's democratic process.

The American Colonization Society: A Flawed Philanthropy

The American Colonization Society (ACS), originally known as the Society for the Colonization of Free People of Color of America until 1837, was founded in 1816 by Reverend Robert Finley. Its stated objective was to encourage and financially support the voluntary migration of free African Americans from the United States to the continent of Africa, specifically to a colony that would eventually become Liberia.

Motivations Behind the ACS

The founding of the American Colonization Society was a direct response to what many white Americans, particularly in the South, perceived as a growing social dilemma: the increasing presence of free Black individuals within a society built upon racial slavery. The number of free people of color in the U.S. expanded steadily following the American Revolutionary War, from approximately 60,000 in 1790 to around 300,000 by 1830. This growth created complex societal tensions. Slaveowners, deeply entrenched in the institution of slavery, feared that these free Black individuals might serve as an inspiration for their enslaved counterparts, potentially assisting them in escapes or inciting rebellions.

Beyond these immediate concerns, a prevalent belief among many white Americans, rooted in prevailing racist ideologies of the era, was that African Americans constituted an inferior race. Consequently, proponents of the ACS argued that Black people would never be able to live peacefully or achieve full citizenship and social equality in the United States. The Society's proposed solution was to relocate them to a place where they could theoretically live without prejudice and establish their own independent society.

Overwhelming Opposition and Practical Failure

Despite the ACS's stated benevolent intentions, the project was overwhelmingly opposed by the vast majority of the African-American community and a significant portion of the burgeoning abolitionist movement. The prevailing sentiment among African Americans was that their families had resided in the United States for generations, and they considered themselves no more African than white Americans considered themselves European. They viewed the U.S. as their homeland and rejected the notion of forced emigration.

Contrary to the ACS's claims that emigration was voluntary, historical evidence suggests that many African Americans, both free and even some enslaved individuals (who were manumitted on the condition of leaving the country), were pressured or coerced into emigrating. This coercive aspect further fueled the opposition.

As historian Marc Leepson points out, "Colonization proved to be a giant failure, doing nothing to stem the forces that brought the nation to Civil War." The practical results of the ACS's efforts were minimal compared to the scale of the Black population in the U.S. Between 1821 and 1847, only a few thousand African Americans, out of millions in the United States, emigrated to the territory that would become Liberia. For instance, by 1833, the Society had transported merely 2,769 individuals to the future Liberia, while during those same years, the Black population in the U.S. had increased by approximately 500,000. Furthermore, nearly half of the emigrants tragically died from tropical diseases in Africa, highlighting the harsh realities and lack of preparation involved. The transportation of emigrants and the provisioning of necessary tools and supplies also proved to be an exceedingly expensive undertaking, contributing to the Society's operational challenges.

Abolitionist Condemnation

Beginning in the 1830s, the American Colonization Society faced increasing and vocal hostility from white abolitionists. Prominent figures like Gerrit Smith, who had initially supported the Society financially but later became a staunch critic, and William Lloyd Garrison, a leading radical abolitionist, denounced the ACS. Garrison's influential 1832 pamphlet, "Thoughts on African Colonization," unequivocally proclaimed the Society a "fraud." According to Garrison and his many followers, the ACS was not a genuine solution to the grave problem of American slavery. Instead, they argued that the Society, either intentionally or unintentionally, served to help preserve the institution of slavery by removing the disruptive presence of free Blacks and thus alleviating the fears of slaveholders, ultimately reinforcing the status quo rather than challenging it.

Frequently Asked Questions About African Americans and the American Colonization Society

Who are African Americans?

African Americans are an ethnic group in the United States composed of individuals with partial or total ancestry from the Black racial groups of Africa. The term primarily refers to the descendants of enslaved Africans brought to the U.S., forming a distinct cultural and historical group within the nation.

How do African immigrants identify in the U.S.?

While some may eventually identify as African American, the vast majority of first-generation African immigrants and their descendants generally identify with their specific nation of origin or ethnicity (e.g., Nigerian, Ethiopian), rather than solely as African American, reflecting their unique cultural heritage.

What was the American Colonization Society (ACS)?

The American Colonization Society was an organization founded in 1816 with the aim of encouraging and supporting the migration of free African Americans from the United States to the continent of Africa, leading to the establishment of Liberia.

Why was the ACS founded?

The ACS was founded in response to a perceived social problem: the growing number of free Black individuals in a slaveholding society. Motivations included slaveowners' fears of free Blacks inspiring rebellions and a prevalent belief among white Americans that African Americans were an "inferior race" who could not coexist peacefully or achieve equality in the U.S.

Why did African Americans and abolitionists oppose the ACS?

African Americans largely opposed the ACS because they viewed the U.S. as their homeland, having lived there for generations, and rejected the idea of forced emigration. Abolitionists, such as William Lloyd Garrison, condemned the ACS as a "fraud" that, instead of ending slavery, inadvertently helped to preserve it by removing free Black people, thereby alleviating anxieties among slaveholders.

Was the American Colonization Society successful?

No, the ACS was largely unsuccessful in its broader goals. Only a few thousand African Americans emigrated to Liberia over several decades, a tiny fraction compared to the millions in the U.S. The initiative was costly, led to high mortality rates among emigrants due to tropical diseases, and ultimately failed to stem the tide towards the Civil War or address the systemic issues of slavery and racial inequality in the U.S.