The Cristero War begins in Mexico.

The Cristero War, also known as the Cristero Rebellion or La Cristiada [la kɾisˈtjaða] (meaning "Christ's War"), was a profound and widespread socio-religious conflict that engulfed central and western Mexico between 1926 and 1929. This bitter struggle emerged primarily as a fierce resistance to the Mexican government's stringent enforcement of the secularist and anticlerical provisions enshrined within the 1917 Constitution, particularly targeting the influence of the Roman Catholic Church.

The Genesis of the Conflict: Anticlericalism and State Power

Following the tumultuous Mexican Revolution (1910-1920), the newly established revolutionary state sought to consolidate its power and reduce the significant influence of institutions perceived as obstacles to its modernizing and nationalist agenda. The Catholic Church, with its vast landholdings, extensive educational institutions, and deep-rooted cultural sway, was seen by many revolutionary leaders as a formidable rival to state authority and a relic of a bygone era.

The 1917 Constitution and Its Controversial Articles

The Constitution of 1917, a hallmark of the Mexican Revolution, introduced several articles designed to curtail the power of the Church and ensure the state's supremacy. Key among these were:

President Calles and the Draconian "Calles Law"

The immediate catalyst for the Cristero War was an executive decree issued by President Plutarco Elías Calles (in office 1924-1928), which came into effect on July 31, 1926. This decree, popularly known as the "Calles Law" (or "Ley Calles"), was designed to rigorously and "draconianly" enforce Article 130 of the Constitution. Calles, a staunch anticlerical, was determined to eliminate what he perceived as the pervasive power of the Catholic Church, dismantle its affiliated organizations (such as Catholic Action, the Knights of Columbus, and the National League for the Defense of Religious Liberty), and suppress popular expressions of religiosity that he deemed a threat to national unity and progress.

The implementation of the Calles Law led to unprecedented measures, including the closure of convents, religious schools, and monasteries, the expulsion of foreign priests, and strict limits on the number of priests allowed to serve. In protest, the Catholic hierarchy, with the authorization of Pope Pius XI, took the extraordinary step of suspending all public worship in Mexico from July 31, 1926, effectively closing churches and depriving the populace of sacraments. This drastic measure, intended to pressure the government, instead ignited widespread popular indignation and directly fueled the armed uprising.

The Rise of the Rebellion: "¡Viva Cristo Rey!"

The suspension of public worship, coupled with the deeply felt suppression of religious freedom, sparked spontaneous rural uprisings, primarily in the states of Jalisco, Zacatecas, Guanajuato, Michoacán, and Colima in north-central and western Mexico. These rebels, who proudly adopted the battle cry "¡Viva Cristo Rey!" (Long Live Christ the King!), became known as "Cristeros." They were largely peasants, farmers, and devout Catholics who saw the conflict as a defense of their faith, traditions, and way of life against what they perceived as an oppressive, secularist state.

Support for the Movement

While the official Church hierarchy initially struggled with how to respond to the armed rebellion, many bishops and priests tacitly supported the Cristero cause, offering moral encouragement and sometimes logistical or financial aid, even as the Vatican publicly urged peaceful resistance. Urban Catholic supporters, organized through groups like the National League for the Defense of Religious Liberty (LNDR), also provided crucial political, financial, and logistical backing to the rural fighters.

The Government's Response and International Involvement

The Mexican Army, under government command, engaged in brutal suppression tactics against the Cristeros, including mass executions, forced relocations, and counter-insurgency campaigns. The government received significant diplomatic and, to a lesser extent, logistical support from the United States. The U.S. government, prioritizing stability in its southern neighbor and protecting American business interests, generally supported the Calles regime against the perceived chaos of the rebellion, including providing arms sales and maintaining diplomatic recognition.

The End of the Conflict: Diplomacy and Lasting Scars

By 1929, after three years of devastating conflict that claimed tens of thousands of lives (estimates range from 50,000 to over 250,000, including combatants and civilians), both sides were exhausted. The economic disruption, human cost, and international pressure prompted a diplomatic resolution.

Ambassador Morrow's Mediation and the "Arreglos"

American Ambassador Dwight W. Morrow played a pivotal role in brokering negotiations between the Calles government and the Church. Morrow, a shrewd diplomat, facilitated a dialogue that included representatives from the Vatican (Archbishop Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores and later Papal Nuncio Pascual Díaz y Barreto) and the Mexican government. The negotiations culminated in an agreement in June 1929, known as the "Arreglos" (Arrangements).

Under these arrangements, the government made some critical concessions: it agreed to moderate the enforcement of the anticlerical laws, grant amnesty to Cristero fighters who laid down their arms, and allow the Church to resume public worship. In return, the Catholic hierarchy officially withdrew its support for the Cristero fighters and urged them to surrender. While the letter of the anticlerical laws remained unchanged, the spirit of their application was softened, leading to a de-escalation of hostilities.

However, the peace was fragile. Many Cristeros felt betrayed by the Church and the government, and numerous fighters who surrendered faced continued persecution, extrajudicial killings, and unfulfilled promises of land and safety. This led to continued sporadic violence and a "Second Cristiada" in the mid-1930s, though on a much smaller scale.

Diverse Interpretations of the Cristero War

The Cristero War remains a complex and often polarizing event in Mexican history, subject to various interpretations that highlight different facets of its origins and impact:

A Protracted Church-State Struggle

One prevalent interpretation views the Cristero War as a major, albeit violent, episode in a long-standing struggle between the Catholic Church and the secular Mexican state. This conflict dates back to the 19th century with the "War of Reform" (1857-1861), known as La Reforma. During this period, liberal governments under figures like Benito Juárez enacted laws (e.g., Ley Lerdo, Ley Juárez, Ley Iglesias) aimed at stripping the Church of its economic power and political influence, nationalizing Church lands, and establishing civil registries. The Cristero War is thus seen as the culmination of over half a century of deep-seated ideological and power conflicts over the role of religion in public life.

The Last Major Peasant Uprising in Mexico

Another perspective categorizes the Cristero War as the last significant peasant uprising in Mexico following the military phase of the Mexican Revolution, which largely concluded around 1920. Like the Zapatista movement during the Revolution, the Cristeros were largely rural, often marginalized populations who took up arms against what they perceived as an encroaching and hostile central government, defending their traditional values, autonomy, and communal way of life. This interpretation emphasizes the socio-economic grievances and the localized nature of the rebellion.

A Counter-Revolutionary Movement

Conversely, some historians interpret the Cristero War as a counter-revolutionary movement. This view highlights the involvement of certain prosperous peasants (rancheros) and urban elites who opposed the social and agrarian reforms championed by the Mexican Revolution. For these groups, the anti-clerical laws were merely a symptom of a broader revolutionary agenda that threatened their economic interests, traditional social hierarchies, and conservative ideologies. In this light, the Cristeros, despite their religious fervor, are seen as indirectly or directly aligned with broader conservative forces seeking to roll back the revolutionary changes.

Frequently Asked Questions about the Cristero War

What was the primary cause of the Cristero War?
The primary cause was the Mexican government's strict enforcement of the anticlerical and secularist articles of the 1917 Constitution, particularly Article 130, through the "Calles Law." This severely restricted the Catholic Church's activities and the rights of its clergy, leading to a widespread popular rebellion in defense of religious freedom.
Who was Plutarco Elías Calles and what was the "Calles Law"?
Plutarco Elías Calles was the President of Mexico from 1924 to 1928. The "Calles Law" was an executive decree he implemented in 1926 to rigorously enforce the anticlerical provisions of the 1917 Constitution. It led to severe restrictions on the Catholic Church, including the closure of religious institutions, limits on the number of priests, and the suspension of public worship.
How did the Cristero War end?
The Cristero War officially ended in 1929 through diplomatic negotiations brokered by U.S. Ambassador Dwight W. Morrow. These "Arrangements" (Arreglos) involved the government agreeing to moderate the enforcement of anticlerical laws and granting amnesty to Cristero fighters, while the Catholic Church agreed to resume public worship and withdraw its support for the rebellion.