Events on January 1 in history

The Republic of China is established.

The Republic of China (ROC), a pivotal entity in East Asian history, served as the legitimate government based in Mainland China from 1912 to 1949. This era concluded with the relocation of its central government to Taiwan following the decisive Chinese Civil War. At its zenith in 1949, the ROC was globally recognized as the most populous nation, home to approximately 541 million people. Geographically expansive, it encompassed a vast territory of about 11.4 million square kilometres (4.4 million square miles), structured into a complex administrative mosaic that included 35 provinces, 1 special administrative region, 2 regions, 12 special municipalities, 14 leagues, and 4 special banners. This significant historical period is widely referred to as the Republican Era within Mainland China or, from Taiwan's perspective, the Mainland Period.

The Birth of the Republic and Early Turmoil

The Republic of China was officially proclaimed on 1 January 1912, marking the culmination of the Xinhai Revolution. This transformative uprising, driven by widespread anti-Qing sentiment and a desire for national modernization, successfully overthrew the Qing dynasty, China's last imperial ruling house. The formal end of over two millennia of dynastic rule came on 12 February 1912, when regent Empress Dowager Longyu signed the abdication decree on behalf of the child emperor, Xuantong (Puyi). Dr. Sun Yat-sen, revered as the 'Father of the Nation' and the founder of the Republic, briefly served as its provisional president. However, recognizing the pressing need for national unity and to avert further civil strife, Sun yielded the presidency to Yuan Shikai, a powerful military figure and leader of the influential Beiyang Army, in a strategic move to secure the Qing abdication. Despite the Kuomintang (KMT), Sun's party then led by Song Jiaoren, winning a majority in the December 1912 parliamentary elections, the nascent democracy faced immediate challenges. Song Jiaoren's assassination shortly thereafter, widely attributed to Yuan Shikai's machinations, allowed the Beiyang Army to consolidate control over the government. Yuan's ambition reached its peak when he controversially proclaimed the Empire of China in 1915, attempting to restore a monarchical system; however, this short-lived monarchy was swiftly abolished due to widespread popular unrest and opposition. Following Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, the already tenuous authority of the central Beiyang government further eroded. This was exacerbated by a brief, unsuccessful attempt to restore the Qing dynasty, leaving a largely powerless central administration. The vacuum of power led to severe fragmentation, as various cliques within the Beiyang Army asserted individual autonomy and engaged in constant internal conflicts. This turbulent period ushered in the Warlord Era, a decade characterized by decentralized power struggles, shifting alliances, and prolonged armed conflict that deeply impacted China's stability and development.

KMT's Rise and National Unification Efforts

Under the leadership of Dr. Sun Yat-sen, the Kuomintang (KMT) embarked on multiple attempts to establish a stable national government, primarily based in Canton (Guangzhou), with the goal of unifying China. After successfully re-establishing control in Canton for a third time in 1923, the KMT set up a rival government, signaling their intent to launch a decisive campaign for national reunification. A significant development occurred in 1924 when the KMT, seeking crucial Soviet support for its unification efforts, formed an alliance with the nascent Chinese Communist Party (CCP). This collaboration, known as the First United Front, aimed to combat both warlordism and foreign imperialism. Following Sun Yat-sen's death in 1925 and the subsequent internal power struggles within the KMT, General Chiang Kai-shek emerged as the new Chairman. Chiang launched the Northern Expedition in 1926, a major military campaign designed to dismantle the Beiyang government and unify the nation. As the expedition progressed, ideological differences between the KMT and CCP escalated. In 1927, Chiang moved the nationalist government to Nanking (Nanjing) and initiated a violent purge of the CCP, beginning with the infamous Shanghai Massacre. This brutal crackdown effectively ended the First United Front and forced the CCP, along with the KMT's left-wing faction, into armed rebellion, marking the formal commencement of the Chinese Civil War. A rival nationalist government was briefly established in Wuhan under Wang Jingwei, though it too purged communists and eventually reconciled with Chiang's Nanking government. By 1928, the Northern Expedition achieved a nominal unification under Chiang Kai-shek's leadership, effectively ending the Warlord Era as a dominant political force. However, disgruntled warlords, unwilling to fully submit to central authority, formed an anti-Chiang coalition. This led to the Central Plains War from 1929 to 1930, the largest conflict of the Warlord Era, where Chiang and his allies ultimately prevailed, further solidifying the KMT's control.

The Nanjing Decade and the Second Sino-Japanese War

The 1930s, often referred to as the "Nanjing Decade" due to the Nationalist government's capital being in Nanjing, saw significant, albeit challenging, efforts at nation-building and industrialization across China. Despite these advancements, the country was continuously beset by internal conflicts involving the Nationalist government, the CCP, persistent regional warlords, and the growing external threat posed by the Empire of Japan. Japanese aggression, notably escalating after the Mukden Incident in 1931 and the subsequent invasion of Manchuria, increasingly overshadowed internal disputes. Nation-building initiatives were ultimately compelled to yield to the imperative of national defense when the Second Sino-Japanese War erupted in full scale in 1937. This was triggered by the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, a skirmish between the National Revolutionary Army and the Imperial Japanese Army that quickly escalated into a comprehensive Japanese invasion. Facing a common existential threat, hostilities between the KMT and CCP partially subsided, leading to the formation of the Second United Front shortly before the war. This fragile alliance aimed to collectively resist Japanese aggression, though it eventually broke down in 1941 due to ongoing ideological differences and skirmishes. The brutal war, a major theatre of World War II, lasted until Japan's unconditional surrender at the end of World War II in 1945. As a direct outcome of the Allied victory and agreements like the Cairo Declaration, China officially regained control of the island of Taiwan and the Pescadores (Penghu Islands), territories that had been ceded to Japan following the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895.

Resumption of Civil War and Relocation to Taiwan

Immediately following the end of World War II and Japan's surrender, the deep-seated ideological and power struggles between the Kuomintang (KMT) and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) resurfaced, leading to the full-scale resumption of the Chinese Civil War. Amidst this renewed conflict, the Republic of China adopted a new constitution in 1946, the Constitution of the Republic of China, which replaced the 1928 Organic Law as the nation's fundamental legal framework, aiming to establish a constitutional democracy. However, the tide of the civil war turned decisively in favor of the CCP. By 1949, as the conflict neared its conclusion, the CCP established the People's Republic of China (PRC) in Beijing on October 1st. In response to the advancing Communist forces, the KMT-led Republic of China government undertook multiple strategic capital relocations, moving successively from Nanjing to Guangzhou, then to Chongqing, followed by Chengdu, and finally establishing its provisional capital in Taipei, Taiwan. The CCP's military triumph resulted in the complete expulsion of the KMT and the ROC government from the Chinese mainland. Following this retreat, the ROC's territorial control further diminished with the loss of Hainan Island in 1950 and the Dachen Islands in Zhejiang province in 1955. Since then, the Republic of China has maintained effective control solely over Taiwan and a scattering of other smaller islands, including Kinmen, Matsu, and Penghu, continuing its existence as a separate political entity.

International Standing of the Republic of China

The Republic of China held a prominent position in the international arena for much of its existence on the mainland and even after its relocation to Taiwan. It was a founding member of the League of Nations, the precursor to the United Nations, playing an active role in global diplomacy during the interwar period. Following World War II, the ROC became a crucial founding member of the United Nations (UN) in 1945, securing one of the five permanent seats on the powerful Security Council. This status reflected its recognition as one of the major victorious Allied powers and a significant global player. The ROC maintained this prestigious UN membership and Security Council seat until 1971. In that year, following a shift in global political dynamics and increasing recognition of the People's Republic of China (PRC) by various nations, the UN General Assembly passed Resolution 2758, which effectively transferred China's representation from the Republic of China to the People's Republic of China. Beyond the UN, the ROC was also an active member of other significant international bodies, including the Universal Postal Union (UPU) and the International Olympic Committee (IOC), reflecting its engagement in global communication and sports. Its displacement from these major international platforms after 1971 marked a significant turning point in its international standing and the broader geopolitical landscape.

Frequently Asked Questions about the Republic of China (1912-1949)

When was the Republic of China established and what was its official name?

The Republic of China (ROC) was officially established on 1 January 1912, following the Xinhai Revolution.

What territories did the Republic of China govern during its mainland period?

From 1912 to 1949, the Republic of China governed Mainland China, encompassing 35 provinces, 1 special administrative region, 2 regions, 12 special municipalities, 14 leagues, and 4 special banners, covering approximately 11.4 million square kilometres.

Who were the key leaders during the early years of the Republic of China?

Key early leaders included Sun Yat-sen, the founder and provisional president, and Yuan Shikai, who succeeded him and attempted to restore monarchy. After Yuan's death, various warlords held sway until Chiang Kai-shek's rise.

What was the "Warlord Era" in China?

The Warlord Era (roughly 1916-1928) was a decade of political fragmentation and military conflict in China, where regional military leaders (warlords) asserted autonomy and clashed for control after the weakening of the Beiyang government.

How did the Chinese Civil War begin?

The Chinese Civil War formally began in 1927 when Chiang Kai-shek's KMT initiated a purge of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), breaking the First United Front and leading to armed conflict between the two parties.

What was China's role in World War II?

China fought the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945), a major front of World War II in Asia, resisting full-scale Japanese invasion. The KMT and CCP formed a fragile Second United Front to fight the common enemy.

Why did the Republic of China government relocate to Taiwan?

The KMT-led Republic of China government relocated to Taiwan in 1949 after suffering decisive defeat by the Chinese Communist Party in the Chinese Civil War, which resulted in the establishment of the People's Republic of China on the mainland.

Did the Republic of China have a seat at the United Nations?

Yes, the Republic of China was a founding member of the United Nations in 1945 and held one of the five permanent seats on the Security Council until 1971, when its representation was transferred to the People's Republic of China.