The Roman Senate posthumously deifies Julius Caesar.
The Roman Senate (Latin: Senātus Rōmānus) was a central institution of governance and counsel throughout the history of ancient Rome. Established during the earliest days of the city—traditionally dated to its founding in 753 BC—it became one of the most longstanding political bodies in Western history. Remarkably, the Senate endured through multiple seismic shifts in Roman governance: from the overthrow of the monarchy in 509 BC; through the Republican and Imperial periods; into the division of the Empire in AD 395; and continued even after the Western Roman Empire’s decline in AD 476. It persisted during Emperor Justinian’s 6th-century reconquest efforts and remained active well into the later stages of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, ultimately fading from significance only in the 14th century.
During the Roman Kingdom, the Senate primarily served an advisory role to the king. While its political authority was limited, it held the crucial responsibility of selecting new monarchs. The reign of the final king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, ended with a revolt led by Lucius Junius Brutus, marking the beginning of the Roman Republic.
In the early Republic (509–264 BC), political power was concentrated in the hands of executive magistrates such as the consuls, with the Senate playing a relatively weak role. The transformation from monarchy to a constitutional political system was gradual, taking generations to solidify. Over time, the Senate's influence grew substantially, and by the middle Republic, it had become the dominant governing authority in Roman political life. This era—particularly during the Punic Wars and Rome’s territorial expansion—is considered the height of senatorial power.
However, the late Republic (circa 133–27 BC) saw increasing internal strife and a steady erosion of the Senate’s dominance. Key moments in this decline include the populist reforms led by the tribunes Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, which attempted to redistribute land and challenge aristocratic privilege. These reforms sparked political violence and set the stage for a series of civil wars and the eventual rise of imperial rule.
With the establishment of the Principate under Augustus in 27 BC, the Senate's constitutional power was significantly curtailed. While it retained ceremonial functions and nominal legislative authority, real political power increasingly resided with the emperor. Collective decision-making gave way to autocracy. Emperor Diocletian’s sweeping reforms in the late 3rd century, combined with the relocation of the imperial capital to cities like Milan and later Constantinople, further diminished the Senate’s role, relegating it primarily to a municipal governing body for the city of Rome.
A further symbolic blow occurred when Constantine the Great established a second Senate in Constantinople. This move underscored the transition of imperial authority to the Eastern provinces and relegated the Roman Senate to a subsidiary role.
Despite the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, the Senate continued to operate under the rule of the Germanic king Odoacer and later the Ostrogoths. After Emperor Justinian I reconquered Italy briefly in the 6th century, he reinstated the Senate in Rome to some extent. However, its functions were minimal, and by 603—the year of its last recorded act—the Roman Senate had effectively ceased to exist. Titles such as “senator” continued to be used during the Middle Ages, but by then they were honorific and no longer denoted legislative authority.
In the Eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire, a separate Senate survived in Constantinople. Though often overlooked in Western historical narratives, this institution endured in various capacities until well into the 14th century, highlighting the resilience and adaptability of Roman governance structures in different contexts.
What was the primary function of the Roman Senate?
Initially, the Senate served as an advisory council to Rome's kings and later to its higher magistrates and emperors. Over time, especially during the Republic, it became the central institution guiding foreign policy, finance, and military matters.
Did the Roman Senate have actual power during the Empire?
In the early Empire, or Principate, the Senate retained some administrative functions but lost most real power to the emperor. By the time of the Dominate, especially after Diocletian, the Senate’s political role was largely ceremonial.
How long did the Roman Senate last?
From its alleged founding in the 8th century BC to its final public act in 603 AD in the West—and continuing in the East until the 14th century—the Senate existed in various forms for over 1,000 years.
Was there more than one Roman Senate?
Yes. While Rome had the original Senate, Emperor Constantine I established a second Senate in Constantinople in the 4th century, reflecting the growing importance of the Eastern Roman Empire.
Key Takeaways:
- The Roman Senate evolved from an advisory body under kings to one of the most powerful institutions during the Republic.
- It gradually lost power under imperial rule, becoming largely symbolic by the end of Late Antiquity.
- Despite its diminished role, the Senate persisted in name and form for centuries, even surviving the fall of Western Rome.
- The Eastern (Byzantine) Senate maintained continuity of Roman political traditions deep into the medieval period.
This historical overview underscores the Senate’s enduring influence on Roman governance and its legacy as a model of aristocratic deliberation in political history.