Births on January 11

John A. Macdonald, Scottish-Canadian lawyer and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1891)

The Enduring Legacy of Sir John A. Macdonald, Canada's First Prime Minister

Sir John Alexander Macdonald, born either on January 10 or 11, 1815, and passing away on June 6, 1891, stands as a foundational figure in Canadian history. He holds the distinction of being Canada's first Prime Minister, serving two non-consecutive terms: initially from 1867 to 1873, and later from 1878 to 1891. Often revered as the dominant architect of Canadian Confederation, his remarkable political career spanned nearly five decades, shaping the nascent nation's early development.

Macdonald's journey began in Glasgow, Scotland, where he was born. As a young boy, his family embarked on an arduous journey, immigrating to Kingston in what was then the Province of Upper Canada, a region that today forms part of eastern Ontario. This move was typical of the era, as many Scots sought new opportunities and a better life in the developing British colonies.

From Prominent Lawyer to Political Architect

Macdonald's sharp intellect and formidable legal skills quickly propelled him to prominence in Kingston. As a lawyer, he gained a reputation through his involvement in several high-profile cases, which not only honed his abilities but also established his public profile. His growing influence led to his election in 1844 to the legislature of the Province of Canada, the pre-Confederation political entity uniting Upper and Lower Canada.

By 1857, demonstrating his political acumen, Macdonald had ascended to the position of premier within the colony's notoriously unstable political framework. This era was characterized by frequent governmental collapses due to the "double majority" principle, which often made stable governance challenging. Recognizing the inherent difficulties and the need for significant political reform, Macdonald took a pivotal step in 1864. Facing a perpetual state of governmental instability where no single party could maintain power for long, he agreed to a groundbreaking proposal from his long-standing political rival, George Brown, the influential leader of the Clear Grits.

This historic agreement led to the formation of the Great Coalition, an extraordinary political alliance forged between opposing factions with the singular goal of achieving federation and comprehensive political reform. Macdonald emerged as the undeniable leading figure in the subsequent, crucial discussions and conferences. These included the Charlottetown Conference (1864), the Quebec Conference (1864), and finally the London Conference (1866-1867), which culminated in the drafting of the British North America Act, 1867. This landmark legislation, passed by the British Parliament, officially established Canada as a self-governing Dominion on July 1, 1867, forever marking Macdonald's central role in its creation.

Nation Building and Political Challenges

As the first Prime Minister of the newly formed Dominion, Macdonald embarked on an ambitious program of nation-building. His tenure, lasting 19 years in total, is among the longest in Canadian history, surpassed only by William Lyon Mackenzie King. During his initial term, Macdonald oversaw several transformative initiatives:

• Establishment of Law and Order: He founded the North-West Mounted Police (NWMP) in 1873, a vital institution designed to assert Canadian sovereignty, maintain law and order, and facilitate settlement in the vast, newly acquired western territories. The NWMP would later evolve into the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP).
• Territorial Expansion: Macdonald dramatically expanded Canada's geographical footprint. This included the acquisition of Rupert's Land from the Hudson's Bay Company in 1870, a massive territory comprising much of present-day Western and Northern Canada. He also facilitated the entry of British Columbia (1871) and Prince Edward Island (1873) into Confederation, largely through promises of railway connections and financial incentives.

However, Macdonald's first term concluded abruptly in 1873 due to the infamous Pacific Scandal. This political crisis revealed that his Conservative Party had accepted significant campaign contributions and bribes from businessmen seeking the lucrative contract to construct the Canadian Pacific Railway. The ensuing public outrage forced his resignation. Despite this setback, Macdonald demonstrated remarkable political resilience, successfully leading his party back to power in the 1878 federal election, showcasing his enduring popularity and political astuteness.

A Second Term: Consolidation and Controversy

Macdonald's second term, from 1878 until his death in 1891, was defined by his commitment to consolidating the young nation and implementing his vision for its future. His most significant achievements during this period include:

• National Policy: He championed the "National Policy," a comprehensive economic program introduced in 1879. This policy had three key pillars: protective tariffs to foster Canadian industries, the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway to unite the country geographically, and the promotion of immigration and settlement of the West to develop its resources.
• Completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway: A monumental engineering and political feat, the completion of the transcontinental railway in 1885 was arguably Macdonald's greatest legacy. It physically linked the East and West, fulfilling a crucial promise to British Columbia and serving as a vital symbol of national unity and economic integration.
• Strong Central Government: Macdonald was a staunch advocate for a strong federal government, consistently fighting to block provincial efforts to centralize power at the expense of Ottawa. This ongoing tension between federal and provincial jurisdiction remains a defining feature of Canadian federalism.
• Patronage and Party Building: He skillfully utilized patronage to forge and maintain a robust Conservative Party, ensuring a stable political base for his ambitious national agenda.

Despite his accomplishments, Macdonald's legacy is also marked by profound controversies. In 1885, he approved the execution of Louis Riel, the charismatic Métis leader who led the North-West Rebellion. Riel was charged with treason and hanged, a decision that deeply alienated many Francophones, particularly in Quebec, from Macdonald's Conservative Party and had lasting repercussions on French-English relations in Canada. Macdonald continued to serve as prime minister until his death in office on June 6, 1891.

Modern Perspectives and Enduring Debate

In the 21st century, Sir John A. Macdonald's historical standing has come under significant re-evaluation and criticism, particularly concerning his role in discriminatory federal policies. These critiques often focus on:

• Chinese Head Tax: Macdonald's government introduced the Chinese Head Tax in 1885, a discriminatory levy imposed on Chinese immigrants entering Canada. This policy aimed to discourage Chinese immigration and later evolved into an outright ban, reflecting and perpetuating racial prejudice.
• Policies Towards Indigenous Peoples: Macdonald's administration implemented policies that had devastating long-term impacts on Indigenous communities. This includes his actions during the North-West Rebellion, which led to Riel's execution, and critically, the development and expansion of the residential school system. This system, designed to forcibly assimilate Indigenous children into Euro-Canadian culture, removed children from their families and communities, suppressing their languages and cultures, and causing intergenerational trauma that continues to affect Indigenous peoples today.

Despite these critical historical reassessments, Macdonald remains widely respected for his pivotal role in the very formation of Canada as a unified nation. Historical rankings based on surveys of experts in Canadian political history consistently place him among the highest-rated prime ministers in Canadian history, acknowledging his undeniable impact on the country's foundational structure and early development, even as the complexities and ethical implications of his policies are increasingly scrutinized.

Frequently Asked Questions About Sir John A. Macdonald

When was Sir John A. Macdonald born and when did he die?

Sir John A. Macdonald was born on January 10 or 11, 1815, and he died on June 6, 1891.

How many terms did Sir John A. Macdonald serve as prime minister?

He served two non-consecutive terms as Prime Minister: from 1867 to 1873, and from 1878 to 1891. His total time in office was 19 years.

What were Sir John A. Macdonald's greatest achievements?

His greatest achievements include being the primary architect of Canadian Confederation, overseeing the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway, establishing the North-West Mounted Police, implementing the National Policy, and significantly expanding Canada's territory.

Why is Sir John A. Macdonald a controversial figure today?

Modern criticism focuses on his role in implementing the Chinese Head Tax and his government's policies towards Indigenous peoples, particularly the establishment of the residential school system and his handling of the North-West Rebellion and Louis Riel's execution, which led to widespread suffering and discrimination.

What was the National Policy?

The National Policy was an economic program introduced by Macdonald's government in 1879, designed to build Canada's economy and strengthen national unity. Its three main pillars were protective tariffs for Canadian industries, the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway, and the promotion of immigration and settlement in Western Canada.

What was the Pacific Scandal?

The Pacific Scandal was a political controversy in 1873 where Macdonald's Conservative Party was accused of accepting bribes from businessmen seeking the contract to build the Canadian Pacific Railway. The scandal led to Macdonald's temporary resignation from office.