Treaty of Kiel: Frederick VI of Denmark cedes Norway to Sweden in return for Pomerania.

The Treaty of Kiel: Reshaping Northern Europe Amidst the Napoleonic Wars

The **Treaty of Kiel**, formally known as the *Kieltraktaten* in Danish, or the *Kielfreden* (Peace of Kiel) in Swedish and Norwegian, was a pivotal diplomatic accord signed on January 14, 1814. Concluded in the city of Kiel, located then within the Duchy of Holstein (part of the Danish realm), this treaty marked the cessation of hostilities between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the Kingdom of Sweden on one side, and the Kingdom of Denmark-Norway on the other. It represented a significant turning point in the final stages of the tumultuous Napoleonic Wars, fundamentally altering the political landscape of Northern Europe.

During this period, European alliances were largely dictated by their stance on Napoleon's French Empire. The United Kingdom and Sweden were prominent members of the **Sixth Coalition**, a powerful anti-French alliance aimed at bringing down Napoleon. Conversely, Denmark-Norway had maintained a precarious alliance with France, largely a consequence of the British bombardment of Copenhagen in 1807 during the Gunboat War, which had compelled Denmark to side with Napoleon. This forced alignment ultimately left Denmark-Norway isolated and vulnerable as the tide turned against France.

Key Provisions and Major Territorial Changes

Under immense pressure from the victorious Coalition powers, King Frederick VI of Denmark was compelled to join the anti-French alliance. The terms of the Treaty of Kiel imposed severe territorial concessions on Denmark-Norway, particularly concerning its long-standing union with Norway. The principal outcomes included:

The Unforeseen Aftermath: Norway's Bid for Independence

While the Treaty of Kiel aimed to definitively settle the future of Norway, not all its provisions came into immediate force, particularly concerning the transfer of sovereignty over Norway. The Norwegian people, long accustomed to a significant degree of autonomy within their union with Denmark, vehemently opposed being simply handed over to Sweden. This widespread national sentiment ignited a powerful movement for independence.

In a remarkable display of national self-determination, Norway declared its independence in 1814. A national assembly convened at Eidsvoll, near Christiania (modern-day Oslo), on May 17, 1814, where they adopted a liberal constitution, often referred to as the Eidsvoll Constitution. This constitution, drawing inspiration from American and French revolutionary ideals, established Norway as an independent and sovereign nation. Subsequently, Crown Prince Christian Frederik of Denmark, who had been the Danish Governor-General of Norway, was elected as the new King of Norway.

The Swedish-Norwegian War and the Personal Union

Norway's declaration of independence presented a significant challenge to the Treaty of Kiel and to Sweden's territorial ambitions. Consequently, Sweden refused to cede Swedish Pomerania to Denmark, as the core condition for its transfer (the acquisition of Norway) had not been fulfilled. Instead, Swedish Pomerania would eventually pass to Prussia after the pivotal Congress of Vienna in 1815, where the great European powers redrew the map of Europe in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars.

To enforce the terms of the Treaty of Kiel and secure its claim to Norway, Sweden launched a brief but decisive military campaign against Norway in the summer of 1814. This **Swedish-Norwegian War of 1814** was short-lived, with Norwegian forces, though spirited, ultimately outmatched by the experienced Swedish army led by Jean Baptiste Bernadotte (the former French Marshal who became Swedish Crown Prince Charles John). Recognizing the futility of prolonged resistance, and aiming to preserve as much of their newly won autonomy as possible, Norway entered into negotiations with Sweden.

These negotiations culminated in the **Convention of Moss**, signed on August 14, 1814. This agreement was a compromise: Norway accepted entering into a **personal union** with Sweden. This meant that while Norway would share a monarch with Sweden, it would retain its own liberal constitution, its own parliament (the Storting), its own laws, and its own institutions, thereby preserving a significant degree of internal self-governance. King Christian Frederik, having secured these guarantees for Norwegian autonomy, abdicated his throne.

An extraordinary session of the Storting was convened, which, after careful deliberation, revised the Constitution to accommodate the union with Sweden. This included necessary amendments to allow for a shared monarch while upholding the core principles of Norwegian sovereignty. The union was formally established when the Storting elected Charles XIII of Sweden as King of Norway on November 4, 1814, effectively bringing the dramatic events set in motion by the Treaty of Kiel to a close. This personal union between Sweden and Norway would endure for nearly a century, finally dissolving peacefully in 1905.

Frequently Asked Questions About the Treaty of Kiel

What was the primary purpose of the Treaty of Kiel?
The primary purpose of the Treaty of Kiel was to officially end hostilities between the United Kingdom and Sweden on one side, and Denmark-Norway on the other, in the context of the Napoleonic Wars, and to formalize significant territorial realignments in Northern Europe.
Why was Denmark-Norway allied with France during the Napoleonic Wars?
Denmark-Norway was compelled to ally with France primarily after the devastating British bombardment of Copenhagen in 1807, which severely damaged its fleet and forced it to choose sides in the ongoing European conflict.
What was the most significant territorial change stipulated by the treaty?
The most significant territorial change was the cession of Norway from Denmark to Sweden, ending over 400 years of union between Denmark and Norway.
Did Norway immediately become part of Sweden after the treaty?
No, Norway did not immediately become part of Sweden. Instead, Norway declared its independence, adopted its own constitution, and elected its own king, leading to a brief war with Sweden before ultimately entering into a personal union.
What was the "personal union" between Sweden and Norway?
The personal union meant that Sweden and Norway shared the same monarch but retained their separate constitutions, parliaments, laws, and internal governance. Norway maintained significant autonomy within this union, which lasted until 1905.
Which territories remained with Denmark after the Treaty of Kiel?
After the Treaty of Kiel, the historic Norwegian dependencies of Greenland, Iceland, and the Faroe Islands explicitly remained in union with Denmark, along with the core Danish territories.