Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht, two of the most prominent socialists in Germany, are tortured and murdered by the Freikorps at the end of the Spartacist uprising.

Rosa Luxemburg, born Róża Luksemburg on 5 March 1871, was a profoundly influential Polish and naturalised-German revolutionary socialist, a prominent Marxist philosopher, and a vocal anti-war activist whose life ended tragically on 15 January 1919. Born into an assimilated Jewish family in Zamość, Congress Poland (then part of the Russian Empire), she pursued her education in Zurich, Switzerland, where she became deeply involved in socialist politics. Her background as a woman, a Pole, and a Jew in late 19th and early 20th-century Europe significantly shaped her perspective on class struggle and internationalism, often placing her at odds with purely nationalistic movements.

Throughout her dynamic political career, Luxemburg was successively a member of several pivotal socialist organizations. She began her activism with the early Polish socialist 'Proletariat' party. Later, she co-founded the Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania (SDKPiL), a party that fundamentally opposed the creation of an independent Polish state, advocating instead for revolutionary internationalism and a united struggle of the working class across national borders. In 1897, she became a German citizen, enabling her to participate more directly in German political life. She then joined the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), which was the largest and most influential Marxist party globally at the time. Her sharp critiques of revisionism and reformism within the SPD showcased her unwavering commitment to revolutionary principles. As World War I loomed and the SPD leadership supported German war efforts, Luxemburg's staunch anti-militarism led her to break away. She joined the Independent Social Democratic Party (USPD), formed by dissidents from the SPD who opposed the war. Most notably, in 1916, alongside Karl Liebknecht, she co-founded the anti-war Spartacus League (Spartakusbund), which advocated for immediate socialist revolution and later served as the foundational nucleus for the Communist Party of Germany (KPD).

The November Revolution and the Spartacist Uprising

The political landscape in Germany was dramatically reshaped by World War I and the subsequent November Revolution of 1918, which led to the collapse of the German Empire. In this revolutionary ferment, Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht emerged as leading figures of the radical left. They co-founded the influential newspaper Die Rote Fahne (The Red Flag), which became the central publication and voice of the Spartacist movement, disseminating their revolutionary ideals to a broader audience and galvanizing support for a workers' republic.

The Spartacist Uprising (German: Spartakusaufstand), also widely known as the January Uprising (Januaraufstand), was a pivotal event that unfolded in Berlin from January 5 to 12, 1919. This general strike, accompanied by armed clashes, represented a direct power struggle between the provisional government, led by the moderate Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) under Friedrich Ebert, and the radical left, primarily the newly formed Communist Party of Germany (KPD), led by Liebknecht and Luxemburg. While the SPD envisioned a parliamentary social democracy within a nascent republic, the KPD sought to establish an authoritarian communist regime, inspired by the Bolshevik model in Russia. Despite recognizing the uprising as a strategically premature "blunder" due to its lack of organized support and preparedness, Luxemburg, committed to revolutionary change, nevertheless supported the attempted overthrow of the government and vehemently rejected any prospect of a negotiated settlement with the SPD leadership.

Suppression of the Uprising and Tragic End

The SPD-led government, under Friedrich Ebert, moved decisively to crush the revolt and dismantle the Spartakusbund. To achieve this, they deployed the Freikorps, a collection of government-sponsored paramilitary groups largely composed of demobilized, right-wing World War I veterans. These units, known for their brutality and anti-communist fervor, swiftly suppressed the uprising. The revolt, largely improvised and small-scale, was quickly overwhelmed by the superior strength and organization of government and paramilitary troops.

The suppression resulted in a significant death toll, estimated between 150 and 200, with the vast majority being insurgents. The most prominent and devastating casualties were Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht. On 15 January 1919, Freikorps troops captured them and summarily executed them. These extrajudicial killings were carried out almost certainly with the implicit or explicit approval of leaders within the provisional SPD-led government. Their murders, symbolic of the deep divisions within the German left, cast a long shadow over the nascent Weimar Republic.

Rosa Luxemburg's Enduring and Ambivalent Legacy

Rosa Luxemburg's intellectual and political contributions, characterized by her unique critiques of both Leninist authoritarianism and moderate social democratic reformism, have led to a somewhat ambivalent reception among scholars and theorists of the political left. She famously criticized Lenin's democratic centralism and the suppression of democratic freedoms, articulating her belief that "Freedom is always the freedom of the dissenter," while simultaneously denouncing the SPD's perceived betrayal of revolutionary principles and their embrace of imperialism. This dual critique makes her a complex figure, admired for her revolutionary zeal and intellectual rigor, yet sometimes marginalized by more dogmatic adherents of either Leninist communism or parliamentary socialism.

Despite her nuanced positions, Luxemburg and Liebknecht were extensively idolized as communist martyrs by the East German communist government (the German Democratic Republic), becoming iconic symbols of anti-fascist and socialist struggle. Even today, the German Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution asserts that the idolization of Luxemburg and Liebknecht remains an important tradition for the German far-left, signifying their enduring revolutionary appeal. However, her legacy in Poland, her country of birth, remains controversial in present-day political discourse. Despite her own Polish nationality and strong ties to Polish culture, her staunch opposition to the creation of a "bourgeois" (capitalist) Polish state – preferring a united, international socialist revolution – led to significant opposition from nationalist factions like the Polish Socialist Party (PPS). Furthermore, later criticisms from Stalinist regimes, which often purged or condemned independent Marxist thinkers who challenged their authoritarian line, also contributed to her contentious historical status within Poland.

Frequently Asked Questions about Rosa Luxemburg and the Spartacist Uprising

Who was Rosa Luxemburg?
Rosa Luxemburg was a Polish-German revolutionary socialist, Marxist philosopher, and anti-war activist (1871-1919). She was a prominent figure on the radical left, known for her sharp intellect, her criticisms of both reformist social democracy and authoritarian Bolshevism, and her tragic death during the Spartacist Uprising in 1919.
What was the Spartacus League?
The Spartacus League (Spartakusbund) was a revolutionary Marxist organization founded in Germany during World War I by Rosa Luxemburg, Karl Liebknecht, and other anti-war socialists. It advocated for immediate socialist revolution and mass action, eventually forming the core of the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) in late 1918.
What was the Spartacist Uprising?
The Spartacist Uprising was a general strike and armed struggle that occurred in Berlin from January 5 to 12, 1919. It was a power struggle between the provisional Social Democratic Party (SPD) government and the radical Communist Party of Germany (KPD), which aimed to establish a Soviet-style communist state. The uprising was ultimately suppressed by government forces and paramilitary Freikorps.
Why was Rosa Luxemburg executed?
Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht were captured by Freikorps troops during the suppression of the Spartacist Uprising on January 15, 1919. They were summarily and extrajudicially executed, almost certainly with the approval of elements within the provisional SPD-led government, due to their leadership roles in the communist revolt against the new republic.
How did the Spartacist Uprising impact the Weimar Republic?
While the brutal suppression of the Spartacist Uprising by the SPD-led government allowed for the scheduled elections to the National Assembly and the subsequent drafting of the Weimar Constitution (creating Germany's first functioning democracy), the government's reliance on right-wing Freikorps units to crush the left profoundly alienated many socialists and deepened the political divisions that plagued the Weimar Republic throughout its existence.