Deaths on January 17

Rutherford B. Hayes, American general, lawyer, and politician, 19th President of the United States (b. 1822)

Rutherford B. Hayes: The 19th U.S. President and the End of Reconstruction

Rutherford Birchard Hayes (October 4, 1822 – January 17, 1893) served as the 19th President of the United States from 1877 to 1881. His distinguished career before the presidency included service in the U.S. House of Representatives and as the Governor of Ohio. Hayes's presidency is often considered a pivotal moment in American history, as it marked the formal conclusion of the post-Civil War Reconstruction era.

Early Life, Legal Career, and Abolitionist Stance

Born in Delaware, Ohio, Rutherford B. Hayes established himself as a lawyer with a strong moral compass. Prior to the American Civil War, he was a staunch abolitionist who actively defended refugee slaves in court proceedings. This commitment to justice for enslaved people demonstrated his early adherence to principles of equality, even when it was politically challenging. From 1858 to 1861, Hayes furthered his legal career by serving as Cincinnati's city solicitor, gaining valuable experience in public service and municipal law.

Civil War Service and Post-War Congressional Term

With the outbreak of the American Civil War, Hayes put his burgeoning political aspirations aside to answer the call of duty, joining the Union Army as an officer. His military service was marked by exceptional bravery and leadership; he was wounded five times, most notably and seriously at the Battle of South Mountain in Maryland in September 1862. His valor in combat earned him a reputation for courage and led to his promotion to brevet major general. Following the war, Hayes transitioned back into politics, serving as a Republican in the U.S. Congress from 1865 to 1867. This experience in Washington provided him with an intimate understanding of federal legislative processes.

Governorship of Ohio

Hayes left Congress to pursue the governorship of his home state, Ohio. He was successfully elected to two consecutive terms, serving from 1868 to 1872. His tenure as governor showcased his executive capabilities and commitment to reform. He notably advocated for prison reform, improved public education, and greater fiscal responsibility. He also served half of a third two-year term from 1876 to 1877, stepping down only when he was inaugurated as President of the United States.

The Contentious 1876 Election and the Compromise of 1877

Rutherford B. Hayes assumed the presidency under extraordinary circumstances, following the 1876 United States presidential election—widely regarded as one of the most disputed and contentious elections in American history. Despite losing the popular vote to his Democratic opponent, Samuel J. Tilden, neither candidate initially secured the required number of electoral votes due to contested returns from four states: Florida, Louisiana, South Carolina, and Oregon. Allegations of widespread fraud and irregularities plagued the election results in these states, plunging the nation into a constitutional crisis.

To resolve this unprecedented electoral impasse, a bipartisan Congressional Commission was established. Composed of members from the House of Representatives, the Senate, and the Supreme Court, the commission was tasked with determining which candidate would receive the 20 disputed electoral votes. Ultimately, in what became known as the Compromise of 1877, the commission awarded all 20 contested votes to Hayes, securing his victory by a single electoral vote (185 to 184).

The Compromise of 1877 was a "backroom deal" that had profound implications for the nation. In exchange for Southern Democrats acquiescing to Hayes's election, an understanding was reached that included:

• The immediate withdrawal of federal troops from the former Confederate states, particularly Louisiana and South Carolina, which effectively ended federal military occupation in the South.
• An end to federal intervention in Southern politics, signaling the formal cessation of Reconstruction-era efforts to ensure racial equality and protect African American civil rights.
• The appointment of at least one Southerner to Hayes's cabinet (David M. Key of Tennessee was appointed Postmaster General).
• Federal funding for internal improvements in the South, including aid for the Texas and Pacific Railway.

This compromise brought an end to the political crisis but ushered in a new era in the South, paving the way for the systematic disenfranchisement of African Americans and the imposition of Jim Crow laws, which would endure for decades.

Key Aspects of Hayes's Presidency (1877-1881)

Hayes's administration was guided by his deeply held beliefs in meritocratic government and equal treatment for all citizens, irrespective of wealth, social standing, or race. He was a prominent figure within the Republican "Half-Breed" faction, which advocated for civil service reform and opposed the "Stalwart" faction's embrace of political patronage. His presidency tackled several critical issues of the time:

• The Great Railroad Strike of 1877: One of the defining events of his presidency, this nationwide strike erupted in response to wage cuts amidst an economic depression. It quickly escalated, disrupting interstate commerce and leading to widespread unrest and violence. In an unprecedented move, Hayes deployed federal troops to quell the strike, marking the first time the U.S. Army was used to intervene in a labor dispute on such a massive scale. This action, while restoring order, remains the deadliest conflict between workers and strikebreakers in American history and set a precedent for future federal involvement in labor disputes.
• Civil Service Reform: Hayes was a vocal proponent of reforming the federal civil service, aiming to eliminate the "spoils system" and base government appointments on merit rather than political loyalty. While he faced significant opposition, particularly from the Stalwart faction led by Senator Roscoe Conkling, his administration implemented modest reforms. He famously challenged the patronage practices at the New York Custom House, leading to the eventual removal of Chester A. Arthur (who would later become president) from his post. These efforts laid crucial groundwork for more comprehensive civil service reforms, such as the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act of 1883.
• Monetary Policy and the Gold Standard: Hayes staunchly believed that maintaining the gold standard was essential for economic stability and recovery following the Panic of 1873. He vetoed the Bland–Allison Act of 1878, which aimed to reintroduce silver money into circulation and increase the money supply. While Congress overrode his veto, his strong stance underscored his commitment to sound money policies and fiscal conservatism, which he saw as vital for restoring business confidence and economic growth.
• Native American Policy: Hayes's approach toward Western Native Americans anticipated the assimilationist policies that would later be codified in the Dawes Act of 1887. He believed that Native Americans should be encouraged to adopt American customs, embrace farming, and assimilate into mainstream society, often at the expense of their traditional tribal lands and cultural practices. This policy, while framed as benevolent, often led to the erosion of tribal sovereignty and forced cultural change.

Post-Presidency and Enduring Legacy

True to his campaign pledge, Rutherford B. Hayes did not seek re-election and retired to his beloved Spiegel Grove home in Fremont, Ohio, at the end of his single term. In his post-presidency, he remained active in public life, dedicating himself to various social and educational reforms. He became a passionate advocate for universal education, prison reform, and particularly, for the advancement of African Americans, serving on the boards of Wilberforce University and the John F. Slater Fund, which supported Black colleges in the South.

Biographer Ari Hoogenboom has noted that one of Hayes's significant achievements was his success in restoring public trust in the presidency. Coming after the tumultuous Grant administration and the unprecedented electoral dispute, Hayes's calm demeanor and commitment to integrity helped reverse the deterioration of executive power that had been evident since the assassination of Abraham Lincoln in 1865.

Hayes's legacy remains a subject of considerable historical debate. Supporters praise his unwavering commitment to civil service reform and his efforts to promote national reconciliation after the war. However, critics often point to his leniency towards the former Confederate states and, most significantly, his withdrawal of federal support for African Americans' voting and civil rights as part of the Compromise of 1877. This decision had devastating long-term consequences for racial equality in the South, leading to decades of segregation and oppression. Consequently, historians and scholars generally rank Rutherford B. Hayes as an average to below-average president, largely due to the profound and controversial implications of the Compromise that brought him to power and effectively ended Reconstruction.

Frequently Asked Questions About Rutherford B. Hayes

Who was Rutherford B. Hayes?

Rutherford Birchard Hayes was the 19th President of the United States, serving from 1877 to 1881. He was also a lawyer, a Union Army officer, a U.S. Congressman, and a three-time Governor of Ohio.

What was the Compromise of 1877?

The Compromise of 1877 was a political agreement that resolved the disputed 1876 presidential election. It granted Rutherford B. Hayes the presidency in exchange for the withdrawal of federal troops from the South, effectively ending the Reconstruction era and federal efforts to protect African American civil rights in the region.

What was Hayes's role in ending Reconstruction?

Hayes's acceptance of the presidency under the terms of the Compromise of 1877 directly led to the formal end of Reconstruction. His withdrawal of federal troops and commitment to non-intervention in Southern affairs allowed Southern Democrats to regain control and subsequently implement policies that disenfranchised African Americans and established Jim Crow laws.

What was the Great Railroad Strike of 1877?

The Great Railroad Strike of 1877 was a nationwide labor uprising triggered by wage cuts. President Hayes responded by deploying federal troops to quell the strikes, marking the first significant use of the U.S. Army to intervene in a private labor dispute on such a large scale.

What were Rutherford B. Hayes's views on civil service reform?

Hayes was a strong advocate for civil service reform, aiming to replace the "spoils system" of political patronage with a merit-based system for government appointments. Although he faced significant opposition, his efforts laid the groundwork for future reforms, most notably the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act.