Events on January 2 in history

The second Palmer Raid takes place with another 6,000 suspected communists and anarchists arrested and held without trial. These raids take place in several U.S. cities.

Understanding the Palmer Raids: A Key Chapter in American History

The Palmer Raids represent a series of significant and controversial law enforcement actions conducted in the United States during late 1919 and early 1920. Spearheaded by the U.S. Department of Justice under the administration of President Woodrow Wilson, these raids aimed to identify, apprehend, and ultimately deport individuals suspected of being radical leftists, particularly anarchists and communists, from American soil. These events are inextricably linked to the broader climate of apprehension known as the First Red Scare.

The Genesis of the Raids: America's First Red Scare

The Palmer Raids unfolded within the larger context of the First Red Scare, a period of intense societal fear and governmental reaction against perceived communist and anarchist threats in the United States. This era immediately followed the conclusion of World War I (1914-1918) and the transformative Bolshevik Revolution in Russia (1917), which established the world's first communist state. The specter of a similar revolutionary upheaval spreading to America fueled widespread anxiety.

Several domestic factors exacerbated these fears, creating a fertile ground for the raids:

• Widespread Labor Unrest: Post-war economic adjustments led to significant labor strife. Major industrial strikes, such as the Seattle General Strike in February 1919, the Boston Police Strike in September 1919, and the Great Steel Strike of 1919, garnered national attention. While often driven by legitimate labor grievances, these strikes were frequently mischaracterized by some as evidence of radical, communist infiltration and attempts to destabilize the nation.
• Racial Tensions and "Red Summer": The year 1919 also witnessed brutal race riots in over 30 cities across the United States, a period tragically known as the "Red Summer." These outbreaks of violence, often fueled by racial prejudice and competition for jobs, were sometimes simplistically attributed to radical instigators rather than deep-seated societal issues.
• Anarchist Bombings of 1919: A series of targeted bombings significantly heightened public alarm. In April 1919, mail bombs were discovered targeting prominent figures, including Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer. A second, more coordinated wave of bombings occurred on June 2, 1919, with eight bombs detonating simultaneously in several U.S. cities. One of these bombs exploded on the doorstep of Palmer's Washington D.C. home, an act attributed to the Galleanists, an Italian anarchist group. These acts of domestic terrorism directly contributed to the perception of an imminent radical threat and provided Palmer with political impetus for his aggressive actions.

Execution and Targets of the Palmer Raids

Under the direct leadership of Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer, with significant organizational support from J. Edgar Hoover, then head of the Justice Department's General Intelligence Division (a precursor to the Federal Bureau of Investigation), the raids were executed with unprecedented scale and often disregard for established legal procedures. The primary targets of these operations were suspected socialists, with a particular emphasis on anarchists and communists who were foreign citizens, as the goal was their deportation from the United States under laws like the Immigration Act of 1918. The raids specifically focused on immigrant communities perceived to harbor radical sentiments.

The raids disproportionately targeted:

• Italian Immigrants: Often associated with various anarchist and syndicalist movements that had roots in Europe, Italian immigrants, particularly those involved in labor activism, were frequently singled out.
• Eastern European Jewish Immigrants: These communities were also heavily scrutinized due to the perception of links to socialist and communist movements emanating from countries like Russia and Poland.
• Immigrant Leftist Labor Activists: Individuals active in labor unions and political organizations that advocated for workers' rights, especially those with perceived radical leanings, were high on the target list, regardless of their specific ethnicity.

The raids were characterized by sweeping arrests, often without warrants, and detention in deplorable conditions. The first significant wave occurred in November 1919, but the largest and most coordinated operation took place on January 2, 1920, when thousands of suspected radicals were rounded up simultaneously in more than 30 cities across the nation.

Outcomes and Challenges to Palmer's Authority

In total, approximately 3,000 individuals were arrested during the Palmer Raids. While the initial intent was mass deportations, the actual number of foreign citizens expelled from the U.S. was significantly lower, reaching 556. These deportees included prominent leftist leaders and activists, notably the anarchist Emma Goldman and the labor leader Alexander Berkman, who were deported aboard the "Soviet Ark" (the USAT Buford) in December 1919.

Palmer's ambitious efforts were largely frustrated and scaled back due to strong objections from another federal agency: the U.S. Department of Labor. Crucially, the Department of Labor, not the Department of Justice, held the ultimate authority for immigration matters and deportations. Key officials within the Labor Department, particularly Assistant Secretary of Labor Louis F. Post, vigorously opposed Palmer's heavy-handed methods. Post and his colleagues raised concerns about the lack of due process, the flimsy nature of much of the evidence, and the widespread violations of civil liberties inherent in the raids. Their interventions led to the cancellation of thousands of deportation warrants, thereby limiting the scope and ultimate impact of Palmer's campaign.

Frequently Asked Questions About the Palmer Raids

What were the primary objectives of the Palmer Raids?

The primary objectives of the Palmer Raids were to identify, arrest, and deport suspected foreign-born radicals, particularly anarchists and communists, who were perceived as a threat to national security and stability in the aftermath of World War I and the Russian Revolution.

Who was A. Mitchell Palmer and what was his role?

A. Mitchell Palmer was the United States Attorney General under President Woodrow Wilson. He was the chief orchestrator and driving force behind the raids, convinced of an imminent radical uprising in the U.S., especially after his home was targeted by a bomb.

What was the "First Red Scare" and how did it influence the raids?

The First Red Scare was a period of intense public fear and government crackdown on perceived socialist, anarchist, and communist threats in the U.S. from roughly 1917 to 1920. It created a climate of suspicion and anxiety that provided the political justification and public support for the aggressive tactics employed during the Palmer Raids.

Which groups were primarily targeted during the Palmer Raids?

The raids primarily targeted foreign-born individuals suspected of radical ties, with a particular focus on Italian immigrants, Eastern European Jewish immigrants, and immigrant leftist labor activists who were allegedly involved with anarchist or communist organizations.

How many people were arrested and deported during the Palmer Raids?

Approximately 3,000 individuals were arrested during the Palmer Raids. While the goal was widespread deportation, about 556 foreign citizens were ultimately deported, largely due to resistance and intervention from the U.S. Department of Labor.

Why did the U.S. Department of Labor oppose the Palmer Raids?

The U.S. Department of Labor, which held authority over deportations, opposed the Palmer Raids due to concerns over widespread violations of civil liberties, lack of due process, and insufficient evidence against many of those arrested. Assistant Secretary Louis F. Post played a crucial role in challenging Palmer's methods, ensuring a more scrupulous review of individual cases.