Sri Lankan Civil War: The Sri Lanka Navy kill 35-100 civilians on the Jaffna Lagoon.

The Sri Lankan Civil War (Sinhala: ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ සිවිල් යුද්ධය; Tamil: இலங்கை உள்நாட்டுப் போர், Ilaṅkai uḷnāṭṭup pōr) was a protracted armed conflict that gripped the island nation of Sri Lanka for over a quarter-century, specifically from 1983 to 2009. This devastating civil war primarily pitted the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), also widely known as the Tamil Tigers and led by Velupillai Prabhakaran, against the successive governments of Sri Lanka.

The roots of this conflict can be traced back to the post-independence period in Sri Lanka. After gaining independence from the British Empire in 1948, the nation saw the implementation of policies that progressively marginalized its Tamil minority. A pivotal moment was the enactment of the Sinhala Only Act of 1956, which declared Sinhala as the sole official language of the nation. This significant policy shift was widely perceived by the Tamil community as a discriminatory measure, severely impacting their access to education, employment, and political representation, thereby fueling sentiments of alienation and injustice. The disenfranchisement of Up-Country Tamils (of Indian origin) shortly after independence further exacerbated ethnic tensions.

The continuous discrimination and violent persecution against Sri Lankan Tamils by the Sinhalese-dominated government manifested in a series of horrific anti-Tamil pogroms, which were large-scale, organized acts of violence. These included widespread riots and massacres in 1956, 1958, 1977, 1981, and most notably, July 1983, often referred to as "Black July." The burning of the Jaffna Public Library in 1981, a significant cultural and intellectual center for Tamils, further symbolized the escalating communal divide and systematic oppression. These violent acts were predominantly carried out by majority Sinhalese mobs, frequently with overt or covert state support, contributing to the radicalization of Tamil youth and the emergence of militant groups.

The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) emerged as the dominant militant force, advocating for the creation of an independent Tamil state, known as Tamil Eelam, in the historically Tamil-majority northern and eastern regions of the island. Their armed struggle, commencing intermittently on July 23, 1983, aimed to secure self-determination for the Tamil people in response to what they viewed as systemic oppression.

The conflict formally concluded on May 18, 2009, when the Sri Lankan Armed Forces militarily defeated the Tamil Tigers after a relentless 26-year military campaign.

Human Cost and Disputed Casualties

The Sri Lankan Civil War resulted in a staggering loss of life, with casualty figures remaining a contentious issue due to the inherent difficulties of accurate enumeration in conflict zones and differing methodologies from various sources. Estimates for the total number of deaths varied significantly:

The Sri Lankan government has consistently refused to allow an independent, international investigation to ascertain the full impact of the war, including the precise number of casualties and allegations of human rights abuses. Disturbing reports have surfaced claiming that government forces were involved in the rape and torture of Tamils who were attempting to collate information on deaths and disappearances. Furthermore, a military whistleblower accused government forces of orchestrating a cover-up, including the burial of bodies in mass graves and the use of chemicals to dissolve human remains, hindering forensic identification and accountability.

Tactics, Allegations, and International Response

Throughout the early phase of the conflict, Sri Lankan forces primarily focused on attempting to retake areas that had fallen under the control of the LTTE. The tactics employed by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, which included suicide bombings, child conscription, and assassinations of political figures, led to their designation as a terrorist organization in 33 countries, including the United States, India, Canada, and the member nations of the European Union. Their sophisticated military capabilities, including a naval wing (Sea Tigers) and even a rudimentary air wing (Air Tigers), distinguished them from many other non-state armed groups.

However, the Sri Lankan government forces were also heavily accused of systemic human rights abuses, including a pervasive culture of impunity for serious human rights violations. These allegations encompassed a lack of respect for habeas corpus in arbitrary detentions, widespread torture, extrajudicial killings, and forced disappearances, often associated with "white van abductions." Numerous international human rights organizations and UN bodies have documented these abuses, calling for accountability from the Sri Lankan state.

Failed Peace Efforts and the Road to Conclusion

The civil war was punctuated by two decades of intense fighting and four failed attempts at negotiated peace settlements. Notably, the Indian Army, as part of the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF), was deployed in Sri Lanka from 1987 to 1990 following the Indo-Lanka Accord, an effort to bring about a political resolution and disarm Tamil militants. However, the IPKF's mission faced significant challenges and ultimately proved unsuccessful in achieving lasting peace.

A glimmer of hope emerged when a ceasefire was declared in December 2001, followed by a formal ceasefire agreement signed in February 2002 with international mediation, primarily facilitated by Norway. For a brief period, a lasting negotiated settlement appeared possible. However, limited hostilities renewed in late 2005, and the conflict began to escalate significantly. The government launched a series of major military offensives against the LTTE beginning in July 2006, systematically driving the LTTE out of the entire Eastern province of the island. In response, the LTTE declared their intent to "resume their freedom struggle to achieve statehood," abandoning the peace process.

In 2007, the government shifted its primary offensive to the LTTE-controlled areas in the north of the country. On January 2, 2008, the government formally announced its withdrawal from the ceasefire agreement, alleging that the LTTE had violated the agreement over 10,000 times. Aided significantly by the destruction of several large arms smuggling vessels belonging to the LTTE, which crippled their supply lines, and an intensified international crackdown on funding for the Tamil Tigers, the government steadily gained ground. The Sri Lankan military successfully took control of the entire area previously held by the Tamil Tigers, including their de facto administrative capital, Kilinochchi, their main military base in Mullaitivu, and the strategically vital A9 highway, which served as a lifeline to the northern Jaffna Peninsula.

Facing insurmountable military pressure and dwindling resources, the LTTE finally admitted defeat on May 17, 2009. Following the LTTE's military defeat, the Tamil National Alliance (TNA), a prominent political party that had previously been seen as pro-LTTE, publicly dropped its long-standing demand for a separate Tamil state, instead advocating for a federal solution within a united Sri Lanka as a pathway to genuine power-sharing and reconciliation.

In May 2010, Mahinda Rajapaksa, who was then the President of Sri Lanka, appointed the Lessons Learnt and Reconciliation Commission (LLRC). The commission's mandate was to assess the conflict between the period of the ceasefire agreement in 2002 and the defeat of the LTTE in 2009, focusing on reconciliation and "lessons learned" rather than direct accountability for war crimes. Its findings, however, were met with criticism from international human rights organizations for largely exonerating the government forces of serious abuses.

Legacy, Accountability, and Remembrance

Since the conclusion of the civil war, the Sri Lankan state has faced substantial global criticism for alleged human rights violations and potential war crimes. These accusations include the indiscriminate bombing of civilian targets, the disproportionate use of heavy weaponry in "No-Fire Zones" where civilians were trapped, the abduction and massacre of Sri Lankan Tamils, and widespread reports of sexual violence by state security forces. The international community, particularly the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC), has repeatedly called for accountability and an independent investigation into these allegations.

Conversely, the LTTE gained notoriety for its own horrific actions and systematic abuses. They were responsible for numerous attacks against civilians of all ethnicities, particularly those of Sinhalese and Sri Lankan Muslim backgrounds, often employing suicide bombings primarily targeting military personnel but also resulting in significant civilian casualties. The LTTE also widely used child soldiers, forcibly conscripting them into combat, and carried out high-profile assassinations of politicians and human rights activists, both within Sri Lanka and abroad (e.g., the assassination of former Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi).

In a related development, British mercenaries who had worked for the private military contractor Keenie Meenie Services, which provided training to the Special Task Force of the Sri Lanka Police during the conflict, were later investigated by the Metropolitan Police in the UK for alleged war crimes, highlighting the complex web of actors involved in the conflict.

The end of the war and its innumerable victims are solemnly remembered annually on various commemorative days, including Sri Lanka's official Remembrance Day and the Tamil community's Mullivaikkal Remembrance Day. The latter specifically commemorates the civilian casualties and suffering in the final stages of the war in Mullivaikkal, a small coastal village that became the scene of intense fighting and immense human tragedy.

The Jaffna Lagoon Massacre (Kilaly Massacre), January 2, 1993

The Jaffna Lagoon Massacre, also known as the Kilaly Massacre, occurred on January 2, 1993. This tragic incident involved a Sri Lankan Navy Motor Gun Boat and several smaller speed boats intercepting a number of civilian boats transporting people between the southern and northern shores of the Jaffna Lagoon in Sri Lanka's Northern Province. Under the glare of a spotlight, the naval vessels attacked these boats. The estimated number of deaths from this incident ranges widely from thirty-five (35) to one hundred (100) individuals. However, only fourteen (14) bodies were officially recovered. Reports indicated that many other victims of this massacre, along with their boats, were tragically burnt. The Sri Lankan government, in its official statement, claimed that the intercepted boats were transporting rebel Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) cadres, a claim disputed by human rights organizations and survivors.

Frequently Asked Questions About the Sri Lankan Civil War

What were the primary causes of the Sri Lankan Civil War?
The primary causes included long-standing ethnic grievances, particularly the marginalization of the Tamil minority through discriminatory state policies such as the "Sinhala Only Act" of 1956, leading to widespread discrimination in language, education, and employment. A series of anti-Tamil pogroms and the rise of Tamil nationalism fueled the armed struggle for a separate state.
Who were the main parties involved in the conflict?
The main parties were the Government of Sri Lanka, primarily represented by the Sri Lankan Armed Forces, and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), also known as the Tamil Tigers, led by Velupillai Prabhakaran.
When did the Sri Lankan Civil War start and end?
The civil war officially began on July 23, 1983, and concluded with the military defeat of the LTTE on May 18, 2009.
What was the LTTE's main objective?
The LTTE's main objective was to establish an independent Tamil state called "Tamil Eelam" in the northern and eastern parts of Sri Lanka, citing continuous discrimination and persecution of the Tamil minority.
Why are the casualty figures for the war so disputed?
Casualty figures are highly disputed due to the chaotic nature of the conflict, restricted access to war zones, and differing methodologies used by various sources. Additionally, political motivations from both sides have influenced the reporting and acceptance of casualty counts, with estimates ranging from 70,000 to over 100,000, and credible sources indicating as many as 40,000 civilian deaths in the final phase alone.
Were human rights abuses committed by both sides?
Yes, both the Sri Lankan government forces and the LTTE were accused of significant human rights abuses and potential war crimes. The LTTE was notorious for suicide bombings, child conscription, and assassinations, while government forces faced allegations of arbitrary detentions, torture, enforced disappearances, and indiscriminate shelling of civilian areas.
What was the role of international mediation in the conflict?
International mediation, particularly by Norway, played a crucial role in facilitating a ceasefire agreement in 2002. However, these efforts ultimately failed to achieve a lasting political settlement due to renewed hostilities and a lack of trust between the warring parties.
What is the significance of Mullivaikkal Remembrance Day?
Mullivaikkal Remembrance Day, observed by the Tamil diaspora and communities in Sri Lanka, commemorates the immense civilian suffering and loss of life that occurred in Mullivaikkal, a small coastal village, during the final, intense battles of the civil war in May 2009.