Events on January 20 in history

The Red Army crackdown on civil protests in Baku, Azerbaijan during the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

The Red Army: A Formidable Force in Soviet History

The Workers' and Peasants' Red Army, commonly known as the Red Army, served as the primary armed forces – encompassing both land and air components – of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) from its establishment in January 1918. Following the formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in December 1922, it continued as the unified military of the entire Soviet Union. Its creation was a direct response to the urgent need for the Bolshevik government to consolidate its power and defend the nascent Soviet state against a myriad of adversaries during the tumultuous Russian Civil War (1917–1922), notably confronting various anti-Bolshevik military confederations collectively termed the White Army. The Red Army was foundational to the Bolsheviks' ultimate victory and the establishment of the Soviet Union. From February 1946, alongside the Soviet Navy, the Red Army was officially renamed the "Soviet Army," representing the main component of the Soviet Armed Forces until the Soviet Union's eventual dissolution in December 1991.

The Red Army's Decisive Role in World War II

The Red Army's contribution to the Allied victory in World War II was monumental, particularly in the European theatre. It mobilized and sustained the largest land force of any Allied nation, bearing the brunt of the fighting against Nazi Germany on the Eastern Front, often referred to as the Great Patriotic War by Soviet historians. This brutal conflict saw an unprecedented scale of military operations and human cost. The Red Army inflicted a staggering 75–80% of the total casualties suffered by the Wehrmacht and Waffen-SS throughout the war, effectively bleeding the Nazi war machine dry and preventing Germany from concentrating its full military might on the Western Front. Its relentless westward advance culminated in the capture of the Nazi German capital, Berlin, in April-May 1945, a symbolic end to the war in Europe. Furthermore, the Red Army's rapid and successful invasion of Japanese-occupied Manchuria in August 1945, known as Operation August Storm, significantly contributed to the unconditional surrender of Imperial Japan, bringing a swift conclusion to the conflict in Asia.

The Dissolution of the Soviet Union: A Geopolitical Transformation

The dissolution of the Soviet Union (1988–1991) represents a period of profound internal disintegration that ultimately led to the demise of the USSR as a sovereign state and federal government. This complex process resulted in its fifteen constituent republics achieving full sovereignty and independence, fundamentally redrawing the global geopolitical map. It marked the definitive end of General Secretary (and later President) Mikhail Gorbachev's ambitious efforts, initiated in the mid-1980s, to reform the entrenched Soviet political and economic systems. His policies, known as Perestroika (economic restructuring) and Glasnost (openness), aimed to alleviate a prolonged period of political stalemate, economic backslide, and internal stagnation. However, these reforms inadvertently unleashed latent forces of nationalism and democratic aspirations that the centralized Soviet system could no longer contain.

Factors Contributing to the Soviet Collapse

• Economic Stagnation: Decades of central planning had led to severe economic inefficiencies, technological backwardness, and shortages of consumer goods, creating widespread public dissatisfaction.
• Political Centralization vs. Republic Autonomy: Despite its federal structure, the USSR was highly centralized, with Moscow dictating policies to its 15 constituent republics. This rigid structure clashed with growing demands for greater autonomy and self-determination from the diverse ethnic groups within each republic.
• Rise of Nationalism and Ethnic Separatism: Suppressed national identities re-emerged, particularly in the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), the Caucasus (Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan), and Central Asia, fueled by historical grievances and the desire for cultural and political independence.
• Gorbachev's Reforms (Perestroika and Glasnost): While intended to revitalize the Soviet system, Glasnost's increased transparency exposed the system's flaws and historical injustices, while Perestroika's limited economic reforms failed to deliver rapid improvements, instead leading to further instability and price increases. The relaxation of control also empowered dissident movements and nationalist aspirations.

Key Milestones in the Dissolution Process

• November 16, 1988: Estonia became the first Soviet republic to declare state sovereignty, asserting the primacy of its laws over those of the Soviet Union.
• March 11, 1990: Lithuania boldly declared full independence from the Soviet Union, a pioneering move soon followed by its Baltic neighbors, Latvia and Estonia, and the Southern Caucasus republic of Georgia within a couple of months.
• August 1991 Coup Attempt: A critical turning point occurred in August 1991 when communist hardliners and military elites attempted a coup to overthrow Gorbachev and halt the failing reforms. The coup failed within days due to widespread public opposition and key military defections, but its collapse severely weakened the central government in Moscow, leading many republics to proclaim independence in the following days and months.
• September 1991: The independence of the Baltic states was officially recognized by the Soviet Union.
• December 8, 1991: The Belovezh Accords were signed by the leaders of the three Slavic founding members of the USSR: President Boris Yeltsin of Russia, President Leonid Kravchuk of Ukraine, and Chairman Stanislav Shushkevich of Belarus. This pivotal agreement declared that the Soviet Union "ceased to exist as a subject of international law and a geopolitical reality" and established the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) as a looser confederation in its place.
• December 16, 1991: Kazakhstan became the last nation to declare independence from the Union.
• December 21, 1991: The Alma-Ata Protocol was signed, formalizing the expansion of the CIS to include all ex-Soviet republics, with the notable exceptions of Georgia and the three Baltic states.
• December 25, 1991: Mikhail Gorbachev resigned from his position as President of the USSR, transferring his presidential powers, including control of the critical nuclear launch codes, to Boris Yeltsin, who was now the first President of the Russian Federation. That evening, the Soviet flag was lowered from the Kremlin in Moscow, replaced by the tricolour flag of the Russian Federation.
• December 26, 1991: The Supreme Soviet's upper chamber, the Soviet of the Republics, formally voted to dissolve itself and the Union, marking the official end of the Soviet Union.

The dissolution of the Soviet Union, coupled with the Revolutions of 1989 in the Eastern Bloc, definitively marked the end of the Cold War, ushering in a new era of international relations.

Legacy and Post-Soviet Geopolitics

In the aftermath of the Cold War and the Soviet collapse, the former Soviet republics embarked on diverse paths, leading to a complex and evolving geopolitical landscape. While some have sought closer integration with Western institutions, others have maintained strong ties with Russia, fostering various multilateral organizations for economic, political, and military cooperation.

Multilateral Organizations and Continued Ties with Russia

• Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS): Formed immediately after the dissolution, the CIS is a regional organization of former Soviet republics aimed at facilitating cooperation in various spheres including economic, security, and humanitarian issues.
• Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO): This is an intergovernmental military alliance, comprising select post-Soviet states, that functions as a collective defense structure, often seen as a counterweight to NATO.
• Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU): An economic union established in 2014, building upon earlier initiatives like the Eurasian Economic Community and the Eurasian Customs Union. It aims to integrate member states' economies, ensuring the free movement of goods, services, capital, and labor.

Integration with Western Alliances

Conversely, the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania), alongside most of the former Warsaw Pact states in Eastern Europe, pursued a distinct trajectory, successfully integrating into Western structures by becoming full members of the European Union (EU) and joining the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). This westward alignment was driven by aspirations for economic prosperity, democratic governance, and enhanced security. Several other former Soviet republics, notably Ukraine, Georgia, and Moldova, have publicly and consistently expressed their interest in following a similar path of Euro-Atlantic integration since the 1990s, a strategic ambition that has contributed to ongoing geopolitical tensions in the region.

Frequently Asked Questions About the Red Army and the Soviet Union's Dissolution

What was the primary role of the Red Army?

The Red Army was the main armed force of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic and later the Soviet Union. Its primary role was to defend the Soviet state, suppress internal opposition during the Russian Civil War, and project Soviet power, most notably demonstrated by its decisive role in defeating Nazi Germany during World War II.

What were the main reasons for the dissolution of the Soviet Union?

The dissolution of the Soviet Union was a multifaceted process driven by economic stagnation, deep-seated ethnic nationalism within its republics, political rigidity of the centralized system, and the unintended consequences of Mikhail Gorbachev's reforms (Perestroika and Glasnost) which, while aiming to revitalize the system, instead accelerated its collapse by exposing its weaknesses and empowering national liberation movements.

How did the dissolution of the USSR impact the Cold War?

The dissolution of the Soviet Union directly brought an end to the Cold War. With the collapse of its main adversary, the United States emerged as the sole superpower, fundamentally altering the global geopolitical landscape and ending decades of ideological and military confrontation between the two blocs.