Sudan's government imposes Islamic law nationwide, worsening the civil war between the country's Muslim north and Christian south.

Sudan, officially known as the Republic of the Sudan, is a prominent country situated in Northeast Africa. It is also commonly referred to as North Sudan to distinguish it from its southern neighbor. Strategically located, Sudan acts as a cultural and geographical bridge between the Arab world and Sub-Saharan Africa, benefiting from its extensive coastline along the Red Sea.

Its geographical position grants it shared borders with several nations, including:

As of 2021, Sudan had a population estimated at 44.91 million people. The country encompasses a vast land area of 1,886,068 square kilometres (728,215 square miles), making it Africa's third-largest country by area. It also holds the distinction of being the third-largest by area within the Arab League. Historically, Sudan was the largest country in both Africa and the Arab League until the secession of South Sudan in 2011, after which Algeria assumed both titles. The vibrant capital city of Sudan is Khartoum, which forms part of a larger metropolitan area that includes Omdurman, the country's most populated city.

Historical Overview and Early Modern Period

The history of Sudan is marked by profound socio-economic and political transformations. During the Mamluk and Ottoman periods, the slave trade emerged as a significant economic and political factor. This practice was not merely supplementary but was often a primary demand from Sudanese regional administrators, known as "Kashifs," surpassing the importance of regular monetary tribute or other forms of remittance. These Mamluks, having fled Egypt after the Ottoman conquest, established a short-lived state at Dunqulah in 1811, primarily serving as a base for their extensive slave trading operations.

The early 19th century witnessed the commencement of Turco-Egyptian rule over Sudan, beginning in the 1820s. Under this administration, the practice of slave trading became deeply entrenched and systematized along a pronounced north-south axis. Slave raids were frequently conducted in the southern regions of the country, where various ethnic and religious groups resided. The captured individuals were then forcibly transported northward, destined for markets in Egypt and the wider Ottoman Empire, fueling their demand for labor and military service. While the Ottoman Turks directly controlled some Sudanese territory for brief periods, their influence was primarily exerted through their Egyptian vassals.

Following Sudan's independence in 1956, the political landscape shifted dramatically. The Jaafar Nimeiry regime, which came to power through a military coup, notably began to introduce Islamist rule in 1983. This policy, which included the imposition of Sharia law, significantly exacerbated the existing rift between the predominantly Islamic north, where the central government was seated, and the largely Animist and Christian populations in the south. This deepening divide became a critical precursor to prolonged civil conflict.

Ancient Kingdoms and Medieval Dynasties

Sudan boasts a rich and ancient history that stretches back to the Pharaonic period, establishing it as one of the cradles of civilization in Africa. This historical trajectory includes several powerful and influential kingdoms:

The Kingdom of Kerma (c. 2500–1500 BC)
One of Africa's earliest urbanized states, Kerma was a sophisticated civilization with monumental architecture, including unique circular burial mounds and a significant cultic center known as the Western Deffufa. It was a formidable rival to its northern neighbor, Egypt.
Egyptian New Kingdom Rule (c. 1500 BC–1070 BC)
Following its conquest by the New Kingdom pharaohs, Sudan, particularly the region of Nubia, became an integral part of the Egyptian empire, serving as a vital source of gold, slaves, and other resources. Egyptian culture, religion, and administration were extensively introduced during this period.
The Kingdom of Kush (c. 785 BC–350 AD)
Emerging after the decline of Egyptian control, the Kingdom of Kush rose to prominence, establishing its own distinct cultural identity. At its peak, the Kushite rulers, known as the "Black Pharaohs" of the 25th Dynasty, conquered and ruled Egypt itself for nearly a century (c. 744–656 BC). Kush was renowned for its unique Meroitic script, pyramid burial traditions, and advanced iron production, playing a crucial role in trans-African trade networks.

After the eventual fall of Kush, the Nubians established three distinct Christian kingdoms: Nobatia, Makuria, and Alodia. These kingdoms flourished, adopting Christianity as their state religion and developing a unique blend of African and Byzantine cultural influences. Makuria and Alodia demonstrated remarkable resilience, enduring until around 1500 AD, resisting early attempts at Islamization for centuries.

Between the 14th and 15th centuries, a significant demographic shift occurred as various Arab nomadic groups migrated into and settled across most of Sudan. This period marked a gradual process of Arabization and Islamization, profoundly transforming the region's linguistic, cultural, and religious landscape.

From the 16th to the 19th centuries, the political map of Sudan was dominated by powerful sultanates. The Funj Sultanate held sway over central and eastern Sudan, known for its blend of Islamic and indigenous traditions and its control over vital trade routes along the Nile. Concurrently, the Darfur Sultanate exerted strong control over the western regions, famed for its economic prosperity derived from trans-Saharan trade and its unique legal system. Meanwhile, the Ottomans maintained some influence over the eastern coastal areas, particularly around Suakin, a strategic port on the Red Sea.

The Dawn of Modern Sudan: Colonialism and Independence

The 19th century ushered in a new era for Sudan as the entirety of its territory was conquered by Egypt under the formidable Muhammad Ali dynasty. Muhammad Ali Pasha, the ambitious Albanian-Ottoman governor of Egypt, sought to expand his domain southward, modernize his army, and secure resources like gold and slaves from Sudan. It was under this Egyptian rule that Sudan's modern borders began to take shape, and the country embarked on a rudimentary process of political, agricultural, and economic development, though often exploitative.

However, Egyptian rule was not unchallenged. In 1881, a surge of nationalist sentiment in Egypt culminated in the Orabi Revolt, a movement that sought to curb foreign influence and enhance Egyptian sovereignty. While it ultimately failed and led to the British occupation of Egypt in 1882 (driven by British interests in the Suez Canal and the route to India), it weakened the authority of the Egyptian monarchy. Simultaneously, a potent religious-nationalist fervor erupted in Sudan, known as the Mahdist Revolt. Led by Muhammad Ahmad, who proclaimed himself the Mahdi (a divinely guided messianic figure in Islam), this movement aimed to purify Islam and liberate Sudan from foreign rule. The Mahdist forces achieved remarkable success, culminating in the capture of Khartoum and the death of General Charles George Gordon in 1885, leading to the establishment of the Mahdist Caliphate of Omdurman, an independent Islamic state that lasted for over a decade.

The Mahdist state, however, was eventually defeated by a superior joint Egyptian-British military force under Lord Kitchener in 1898. This victory ostensibly restored the authority of the Egyptian monarch, but in practice, Egyptian sovereignty in Sudan became largely nominal. The true power in both Egypt and Sudan was now firmly in the hands of the United Kingdom. In 1899, under significant British pressure, Egypt formally agreed to share sovereignty over Sudan with the United Kingdom, establishing the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium. Despite the "shared" designation, Sudan was effectively governed as a British possession, with British officials holding the real administrative power.

The 20th century witnessed the burgeoning of both Egyptian and Sudanese nationalist movements, each primarily focused on ending the United Kingdom's occupation. The Egyptian Revolution of 1952, a pivotal event, successfully toppled the monarchy and demanded the complete withdrawal of British forces from both Egypt and Sudan. Muhammad Naguib, one of the two co-leaders of the revolution and Egypt's first President, held a unique connection to Sudan, being half-Sudanese and having been raised there. He made securing Sudanese independence a paramount priority for the new revolutionary government. The following year, responding to intensified pressure from both Egyptian and Sudanese nationalist leaders, the United Kingdom agreed to terminate the shared sovereignty over Sudan and grant it full independence. On January 1, 1956, Sudan was officially declared an independent state, marking a new chapter in its long history.

Post-Independence Challenges and Recent Developments

The early promise of independence was soon overshadowed by deep-seated internal divisions. Differences in language, religion, and political power distribution erupted into a protracted civil war between the central government forces, heavily influenced by the National Islamic Front (NIF), and various southern rebel groups. The most influential of these factions was the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA). This conflict, largely the Second Sudanese Civil War (1983-2005), ultimately concluded with a peace agreement and the subsequent independence of South Sudan in 2011, significantly altering Sudan's geographical and demographic profile.

Between 1989 and 2019, Sudan experienced a 30-year-long military dictatorship led by Omar al-Bashir. His regime was widely accused of severe human rights abuses, including systematic torture, persecution of minorities, and allegations of sponsoring global terrorism. Most notably, the regime's role in the War in the Darfur region, which erupted in 2003, led to accusations of ethnic genocide. The conflict in Darfur resulted in a devastating human toll, with estimates suggesting between 300,000 and 400,000 deaths caused by the regime's actions. Widespread protests demanding Bashir's resignation erupted across the country in 2018, culminating in a military coup d'état on April 11, 2019, which removed him from power and ushered in a transitional period.

A significant legal and societal shift occurred in 2020. After decades of Islamic law being applied as the state religion since 1983, Sudan officially became a secular state. This landmark decision marked a profound reversal of policies that had fueled much of the past conflict and discrimination.

Economically, Sudan is classified as a lower-middle-income country. Its economy heavily relies on oil production, despite facing long-term international sanctions and isolation. These sanctions have significantly hampered foreign investment and economic development. Sudan is actively involved in the international community as a member of:

The Second Sudanese Civil War (1983-2005)

The Second Sudanese Civil War was a devastating conflict that raged from 1983 to 2005 between the central Sudanese government, dominated by northern interests, and the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA), which represented southern aspirations. This war was largely a continuation of the underlying issues that sparked the First Sudanese Civil War (1955-1972), including religious and cultural differences, economic marginalization of the south, and disputes over resources and political power. While it originated primarily in southern Sudan, the conflict tragically spread to other marginalized regions, notably the Nuba Mountains and the Blue Nile State.

Lasting for 22 years, it stands as one of the longest civil wars on record globally. The immense suffering and widespread destruction it caused eventually led to the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) in 2005. Six years after the war officially ended, in 2011, the people of South Sudan voted overwhelmingly for independence, resulting in the creation of the world's newest nation.

The human cost of the Second Sudanese Civil War was staggering. Roughly two million people perished as a direct or indirect result of the conflict, succumbing to warfare, famine, and disease. Furthermore, an estimated four million people in southern Sudan were displaced from their homes at least once, and often repeatedly, during the prolonged period of hostilities. The civilian death toll from this conflict is considered one of the highest of any war since World War II. The war was characterized by numerous severe human rights violations, including widespread instances of slavery and mass killings, highlighting the profound brutality and suffering inflicted upon the civilian population.

Frequently Asked Questions About Sudan

What is Sudan's official name and location?
Sudan's official name is the Republic of the Sudan. It is located in Northeast Africa, bordering the Red Sea.
What are Sudan's current borders?
Sudan borders the Central African Republic, Chad, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Libya, and South Sudan, in addition to its maritime border with the Red Sea.
What is the capital of Sudan?
The capital city of Sudan is Khartoum, which also forms part of a larger metropolitan area including Omdurman, its most populated city.
What is the population and area of Sudan?
As of 2021, Sudan had a population of 44.91 million people and occupies 1,886,068 square kilometres (728,215 square miles), making it Africa's third-largest country by area.
What role did slave trade play in Sudan's early modern history?
During the Mamluk and Turco-Egyptian periods, slave trade was a significant economic activity and a primary demand, often exceeding regular tribute. It was institutionalized along a north-south axis, with slaves from the south transported to Egypt and the Ottoman Empire.
When did Sudan gain independence?
Sudan gained full independence on January 1, 1956, after being governed as an Anglo-Egyptian Condominium.
What was the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium?
The Anglo-Egyptian Condominium (1899-1956) was a system of joint sovereignty over Sudan by Egypt and the United Kingdom, though in practice, the British held the dominant administrative power.
What was the Mahdist Revolt?
The Mahdist Revolt (1881-1898) was a religious-nationalist uprising in Sudan led by Muhammad Ahmad, the self-proclaimed Mahdi, which successfully established an independent Islamic state, the Caliphate of Omdurman, for over a decade before being defeated by Anglo-Egyptian forces.
What led to the secession of South Sudan?
The secession of South Sudan in 2011 was the culmination of decades of civil war (the First and Second Sudanese Civil Wars) stemming from deep-seated differences in language, religion, culture, and political marginalization between the predominantly Muslim north and the Animist and Christian south.
Who was Omar al-Bashir?
Omar al-Bashir led a 30-year military dictatorship in Sudan from 1989 to 2019. His regime was accused of widespread human rights abuses, including torture, persecution, and ethnic genocide, particularly during the War in Darfur. He was overthrown by a coup in 2019.
Is Sudan a secular state?
Yes, Sudan became a secular state in 2020, reversing policies that had applied Islamic laws since 1983.
What was the Second Sudanese Civil War?
The Second Sudanese Civil War (1983-2005) was a conflict between the central Sudanese government and the Sudan People's Liberation Army, largely a continuation of earlier conflicts. It lasted 22 years, caused an estimated two million deaths, displaced four million people, and ultimately led to the independence of South Sudan.