Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, English politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (b. 1621)

Anthony Ashley Cooper: A Pivotal Figure in 17th-Century English Politics and the Birth of the Whig Party

Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury PC (22 July 1621 – 21 January 1683), stands as one of the most dynamic and influential English politicians of the 17th century. His extensive career spanned the turbulent period of the English Interregnum and the transformative reign of King Charles II. Known for his political acumen and shifting allegiances, he evolved from a Royalist to a staunch Parliamentarian, ultimately emerging as a principal architect and foundational leader of the Whig party. Beyond his political contributions, Shaftesbury is also famously recognized as the patron and intellectual collaborator of the renowned philosopher John Locke, whose ideas profoundly influenced political thought.

From Humble Beginnings to Political Ascendancy

Born in 1621, Anthony Ashley Cooper faced an early life marked by loss, becoming an orphan by the tender age of eight. His upbringing was overseen by Edward Tooker and other guardians named in his father's will, ensuring his access to a robust education. He subsequently pursued higher learning at Exeter College, Oxford, and later refined his legal understanding at Lincoln's Inn, a prestigious Inn of Court. His entry into political life was facilitated by a strategic marriage in 1639 to Margaret Coventry, daughter of Thomas Coventry, 1st Baron Coventry, whose patronage secured his initial parliamentary seat in the Short Parliament. Though he soon lost a fiercely contested election to the Long Parliament, this early experience foreshadowed a career defined by resilience and political maneuvering.

Navigating the English Civil Wars and the Interregnum

The mid-17th century was a period of profound upheaval in England, marked by the English Civil Wars. Cooper's early loyalties were with the Royalist cause, demonstrating his initial support for King Charles I. However, a significant shift in his political alignment occurred in 1644 when he transitioned to the Parliamentarian side, reflecting the complex and often fluid allegiances of the time. During the subsequent English Interregnum, a period when England was a republic under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell, Cooper played an active role, serving on the English Council of State. Yet, his commitment to parliamentary principles remained steadfast; he notably opposed Cromwell's attempts to govern without Parliament, particularly during the controversial Rule of the Major-Generals. He also stood against the radical religious extremism of groups like the Fifth Monarchists during Barebone's Parliament, advocating for a more moderate approach to governance and religious policy.

The Road to Restoration and Service to Charles II

Following the death of Oliver Cromwell and the ineffective rule of his son Richard, Cooper was instrumental in the events leading to the Restoration of the monarchy. He vociferously opposed attempts by the New Model Army to assert control after Richard Cromwell's ousting, understanding the need for stable civil government. Recognizing the political vacuum, he actively encouraged Sir George Monck's decisive march on London, a pivotal military maneuver that paved the way for the return of the monarchy. Cooper himself played a crucial role in the Convention Parliament of 1660, which formally agreed to restore the English monarchy. As a testament to his influence and trust, he was chosen as a member of the twelve-strong delegation dispatched to the Dutch Republic to formally invite King Charles II to return to England. Shortly before his coronation, King Charles II honored Cooper by creating him Lord Ashley, a new peerage that elevated him from the House of Commons to the House of Lords when the Cavalier Parliament convened in 1661.

His significant contributions continued under the restored monarchy. He held the esteemed position of Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1661 to 1672, demonstrating his financial and administrative capabilities. During the ministry of the Earl of Clarendon, Shaftesbury exhibited his characteristic independent spirit by opposing the strict uniformity enforced by the Clarendon Code, a series of laws designed to reinforce the Church of England's dominance. Instead, he preferred King Charles II's Declaration of Indulgence (1662), which aimed to grant a degree of religious freedom to Protestant Nonconformists and Roman Catholics, though the King was ultimately compelled to withdraw it due to parliamentary opposition.

The Cabal Ministry and the Earl of Shaftesbury

After the fall of Clarendon, Shaftesbury ascended to even greater prominence as one of the five influential members of the 'Cabal Ministry,' an acronym-based grouping of high-ranking officials (Clifford, Arlington, Buckingham, Ashley, and Lauderdale) that dominated English politics between 1667 and 1673. This ministry was significant for its more flexible and often secretive approach to foreign policy and domestic affairs. During this period, in 1672, he was elevated further, becoming the 1st Earl of Shaftesbury and concurrently serving as Lord Chancellor from 1672 to 1673. It was during this pivotal time that the philosopher John Locke formally entered his household, beginning a lifelong association that profoundly influenced both men's intellectual and political trajectories.

Colonial Ambitions and the Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina

Shaftesbury harbored a keen interest in England's expanding colonial ventures, particularly in North America. His vision extended beyond mere acquisition; he was a driving force behind the systematic development of new territories. As one of the eight Lords Proprietor of the vast Province of Carolina, he played a direct role in its establishment and governance. In 1669, his intellectual collaboration with John Locke bore fruit in the form of the groundbreaking Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina. This ambitious document outlined a unique social and political structure for the fledgling colony, attempting to balance elements of a hereditary nobility and strict land distribution with provisions for religious toleration for various denominations and the establishment of a form of representative government. While innovative for its era in promoting religious freedom, it is also important to note that the document unfortunately sanctioned the institution of slavery, reflecting the complex moral landscape of the 17th century.

Leading the Opposition: The Exclusion Crisis and the Birth of the Whigs

By 1673, Shaftesbury's political focus shifted dramatically as he grew increasingly concerned about the succession to the English throne. His apprehension centered on James, Duke of York, King Charles II's brother and heir apparent, whom Shaftesbury rightly suspected of being a secret Roman Catholic. This fear ignited his fervent opposition to perceived "popery and arbitrary government," themes that would dominate the latter part of his career.

He became a leading adversary of the policies championed by Thomas Osborne, Earl of Danby, the Lord Treasurer, who favored a strict interpretation of penal laws designed to enforce compulsory Anglican adherence and limit dissent. While Shaftesbury initially showed some willingness to cooperate with the Duke of York on the issue of opposing penal laws against Roman Catholic recusants, his concerns deepened. By 1675, he was firmly convinced that Danby, with the support of high church bishops, was actively working to revert England to an absolute monarchy, much like that emerging in Catholic France. He increasingly saw the Duke of York's Catholicism as inextricably linked to this authoritarian threat.

Throughout the period from 1675 to 1680, Shaftesbury became the preeminent voice advocating for parliamentary rights and Protestant security. He argued passionately for frequent parliaments, believing they were essential checks on royal power. This stance was so provocative that it led to his imprisonment in the Tower of London from 1677 to 1678. His most significant political battle, however, unfolded during the Exclusion Crisis. Deeply convinced that the nation needed protection from a potential Roman Catholic successor, he was an outspoken and relentless supporter of the Exclusion Bill, which sought to bar James, Duke of York, from the throne. He simultaneously pursued alternative solutions, advocating for King Charles II to remarry a Protestant princess to produce a legitimate Protestant heir, or, failing that, to legitimize his Protestant illegitimate son, James Scott, Duke of Monmouth. It was during this intense political struggle, characterized by profound ideological divisions over royal power, religious freedom, and succession, that the Whig party was born. Shaftesbury, with his uncompromising stance on parliamentary supremacy and Protestant liberty, emerged as one of the party's most prominent and influential leaders, defining its early principles against the emerging Tory party, which generally favored stronger monarchical authority and Anglican uniformity.

Final Years and Legacy

Shaftesbury's unwavering opposition to the Duke of York's succession ultimately put him in grave danger. In 1681, amidst a period of Tory reaction following the repeated failure of the Exclusion Bill to pass, he was arrested for high treason. Although the prosecution was ultimately dropped several months later due to insufficient evidence and a Whig-leaning jury in London, his position remained precarious. By 1682, with the Tories gaining significant influence and the ability to "pack" London juries with their supporters, Shaftesbury feared re-arrest and a trial that could easily lead to conviction and execution. Consequently, he made the difficult decision to flee England. He sought refuge in Amsterdam, a city known for its political and religious tolerance, but his health, likely exacerbated by years of intense political struggle and exile, soon deteriorated. He fell ill and passed away in January 1683. Despite his tumultuous end, Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, left an indelible mark on English political history, not only as a survivor and shapeshifter through decades of change but as a key architect of a two-party system and a champion of parliamentary power that profoundly shaped the future of British governance.

FAQs About Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury

Who was Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury?
He was a highly influential English politician during the 17th century, active during the Interregnum and the reign of King Charles II. He is recognized as a key founder of the Whig party and was a prominent patron of the philosopher John Locke.
What was Shaftesbury's role in the English Civil Wars and the Interregnum?
He initially fought as a Royalist but later switched allegiance to the Parliamentarian cause in 1644. During the Interregnum, he served on Oliver Cromwell's Council of State but notably opposed Cromwell's attempts to rule without Parliament and also spoke against radical religious factions.
How was Shaftesbury involved in the Restoration of the Monarchy?
He was a significant proponent of restoring the monarchy, encouraging George Monck's march on London and serving in the Convention Parliament of 1660. He was part of the delegation that invited King Charles II to return to England.
What was the "Cabal Ministry" and Shaftesbury's involvement?
The Cabal Ministry (1667-1673) was a group of five influential ministers, including Shaftesbury, who advised King Charles II. Shaftesbury served as Lord Chancellor during this period and was created Earl of Shaftesbury in 1672.
What was the Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina?
It was a detailed document outlining the government and social structure for the Province of Carolina, co-written by Shaftesbury and John Locke in 1669. It was notable for its provisions on religious toleration, representative government, and unfortunately, also for sanctioning slavery.
Why was Shaftesbury a prominent figure during the Exclusion Crisis?
He was a leading and outspoken proponent of the Exclusion Bill, which sought to prevent the Roman Catholic James, Duke of York, from inheriting the throne. His efforts during this crisis were instrumental in the formation and early leadership of the Whig party.