Hadrian, Roman emperor (d. 138)

Publius Aelius Hadrianus, more commonly known as Hadrian, served as the influential Roman emperor from 117 to 138 CE. His reign marked a pivotal shift in the Roman Empire's strategic approach, transitioning from an era of aggressive expansion to one of consolidation and internal development. Born on 24 January 76 CE into a Roman Italo-Hispanic family with deep roots in the Italian city of Atri in Picenum, his lineage was notable. His father held a prestigious senatorial rank and was a first cousin of the reigning Emperor Trajan, positioning young Hadrian advantageously within the Roman elite. Early in his career, even before Trajan ascended to the imperial throne, Hadrian married Vibia Sabina, Trajan's grand-niece. This union was likely orchestrated by key figures within the imperial court, possibly at the direct behest of Trajan's influential wife, Pompeia Plotina. Both Plotina and Trajan's highly trusted friend and adviser, Lucius Licinius Sura, held a strong favorable disposition towards Hadrian, playing crucial roles in his rise. Upon Trajan's death, his widow, Plotina, asserted that the emperor had, in his final moments, formally nominated Hadrian as his successor, solidifying his claim to the throne amidst the complex politics of imperial succession.

Hadrian's succession was swiftly approved by the formidable Roman military and the venerable Senate. However, his early reign was immediately marred by a significant and controversial event: the summary execution of four leading senators. These high-ranking individuals, who had either openly opposed Hadrian or were perceived as threats to his newly secured position, were put to death unlawfully. The Senate, a body that held its members' lives sacrosanct and deeply valued its traditional prerogatives, held Hadrian personally responsible for these deaths and never truly forgave him, fostering a lingering resentment throughout his rule. Further disapproval, particularly among the traditional Roman elite who valued military glory and territorial gain, stemmed from Hadrian's radical departure from Emperor Trajan's ambitious expansionist policies. He consciously abandoned significant territorial gains in Mesopotamia, Assyria, Armenia, and portions of Dacia, which Trajan had painstakingly acquired. Hadrian's strategic vision was instead focused on a more pragmatic and sustainable approach: investing heavily in the development of stable, defensible borders, often marked by elaborate fortifications, and fostering the unification of the empire's diverse and disparate peoples. His most enduring legacy in this regard is undoubtedly the construction of Hadrian's Wall, a monumental defensive barrier that famously marked the northernmost limit of Roman Britannia, symbolizing this new era of imperial consolidation.

Emperor Hadrian pursued his own unique imperial ideals and personal interests with remarkable energy and dedication. Unlike many of his predecessors, he was a restless and peripatetic ruler, undertaking extensive travels that saw him visit almost every province of the vast Roman Empire. He was invariably accompanied by an impressive imperial retinue of specialists, administrators, and military experts, allowing him to directly assess provincial affairs, implement reforms, and foster loyalty across the diverse regions. Throughout his travels, he consistently encouraged military preparedness and discipline, often inspecting garrisons and overseeing training. Beyond military matters, Hadrian was a prolific patron of the arts, architecture, and civic life; he actively fostered, meticulously designed, or personally subsidised countless civil and religious institutions and monumental building projects across the empire. In Rome itself, his architectural achievements include the complete rebuilding of the Pantheon, transforming it into the iconic dome-topped temple we know today, and the grand construction of the Temple of Venus and Roma, a colossal structure showcasing Roman architectural prowess. In Egypt, historical evidence suggests he may have also undertaken the significant task of rebuilding the Serapeum of Alexandria. Hadrian was an ardent and well-known admirer of Greek culture, a philhellene who passionately sought to elevate Athens to the status of the cultural capital of the entire Empire. To this end, he commissioned and ordered the construction of numerous opulent temples and public works in the city, contributing significantly to its urban landscape. His intense and deeply personal relationship with the young Greek youth Antinous, and the latter's untimely and mysterious death, profoundly impacted Hadrian, leading him to establish a widespread imperial cult dedicated to Antinous late in his reign – an unusual and unique phenomenon in Roman religious history. While his reign was largely characterized by peace and stability, it was punctuated by the brutal suppression of the Bar Kokhba revolt in Judaea, a major Jewish uprising that challenged Roman authority in the region.

Hadrian's final years were tragically marred by chronic and debilitating illness, believed by historians to be a form of dropsy or congestive heart failure, which likely contributed to his increasingly irritable and melancholic temperament. He viewed the costly and bloody suppression of the Bar Kokhba revolt, and its aftermath, as a personal failure of his panhellenic ideal, as it necessitated a harsh suppression of Jewish identity that ran counter to his vision of a unified, culturally integrated empire. During this period, his lingering distrust of the Senate resurfaced as he ordered the execution of two more senators for alleged plots against him, actions that further provoked deep resentment and solidified the Senate's lasting animosity. His marriage to Vibia Sabina had been notoriously unhappy and, crucially for imperial succession, childless. To secure a stable future for the empire, Hadrian adopted Antoninus Pius in 138 CE and formally nominated him as his successor. This adoption, however, came with a specific and visionary condition: Antoninus was required to adopt two younger heirs, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, ensuring a clear and peaceful line of succession for the next two generations – a testament to Hadrian's foresight. Hadrian died the same year, on 10 July 138 CE, at his villa in Baiae. Despite persistent opposition from the Senate, his successor Antoninus Pius successfully campaigned for Hadrian's deification, admitting him into the pantheon of Roman gods. The esteemed 18th-century historian Edward Gibbon famously included Hadrian among his list of the Empire's "Five Good Emperors," describing him as a "benevolent dictator" whose reign epitomized a golden age of stability. However, Hadrian's own contemporary Senate often found him to be remote, authoritarian, and dangerously unpredictable. Historically, he has been described as an enigmatic and profoundly contradictory figure, possessing a remarkable capacity for both immense personal generosity and acts of extreme cruelty. He was driven by an insatiable curiosity, a pronounced self-conceit, and an unyielding ambition that shaped his transformative reign.

Frequently Asked Questions About Emperor Hadrian

How did Hadrian become emperor?
Hadrian's path to the emperorship was secured when Emperor Trajan's widow, Pompeia Plotina, claimed that Trajan had nominated Hadrian as his successor immediately before his death. This nomination, combined with Hadrian's existing close ties to the imperial court and his strong military backing, facilitated his succession in 117 CE.
What was Hadrian's most famous achievement?
Hadrian's most famous and enduring achievement is undoubtedly the construction of Hadrian's Wall, a massive defensive fortification across northern Britannia. This wall, completed in 122 CE, marked the physical and symbolic northern frontier of the Roman Empire and remains a UNESCO World Heritage Site today.
Why did Hadrian abandon Trajan's conquests?
Hadrian abandoned Trajan's expansionist policies and territorial gains (particularly in Mesopotamia, Assyria, Armenia, and parts of Dacia) because he believed the empire had become overextended and too difficult to defend. His strategy focused on consolidating existing territories, strengthening borders, and ensuring internal stability rather than further costly and unsustainable expansion.
What was Hadrian's relationship with Greek culture?
Hadrian was a profound admirer of Greek culture, a quality known as philhellenism. He sought to make Athens the cultural capital of the Empire, commissioning numerous temples and public works there. His love for Greece deeply influenced his personal tastes, imperial policies, and architectural endeavors.
Who succeeded Hadrian as emperor?
Hadrian adopted and nominated Antoninus Pius as his successor in 138 CE. Furthermore, Hadrian stipulated that Antoninus, in turn, adopt Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, effectively planning the imperial succession for two generations and ensuring a period of stability known as the Pax Romana.