Second Sino-Japanese War: The Chinese National Revolutionary Army begins its defense of Harbin.

The Second Sino-Japanese War: A Defining Conflict of the 20th Century in Asia

The Second Sino-Japanese War, spanning from 1937 to 1945, was a monumental military conflict predominantly waged between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan. This devastating struggle constituted the principal Chinese theater within the broader Pacific Theater of the Second World War. Conventionally, the commencement of this full-scale war is marked by the Marco Polo Bridge Incident on July 7, 1937. This seemingly minor dispute between Japanese and Chinese troops near Peking (now Beijing) rapidly escalated into a full-scale Japanese invasion, signaling the undeniable beginning of World War II in Asia.

Throughout the conflict, China received crucial material and strategic assistance from the Soviet Union and, later, the United States. Following the coordinated Japanese attacks on Malaya and the infamous surprise attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the Second Sino-Japanese War officially merged into the global framework of World War II. The Chinese front then became a major component of the China Burma India Theater, a critical operational area for the Allied forces.

Historical perspectives differ on the precise start of World War II. While some scholars regard the European War (beginning with Germany's invasion of Poland in 1939) and the Pacific War (starting with Pearl Harbor in 1941) as distinct yet concurrent conflicts, a compelling argument is made by others that the full-scale eruption of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937 inherently marks the true global commencement of World War II. This conflict stands as the largest Asian war of the 20th century, bearing the brunt of the Pacific War's immense human cost. It accounted for the vast majority of both civilian and military casualties, with estimates ranging tragically between 10 and 25 million Chinese civilians perishing from war-related violence, famine, and disease. Additionally, over 4 million Chinese and Japanese military personnel were either missing or died. The unparalleled scale of atrocities and suffering has led some historians to refer to the war as "the Asian Holocaust."

The Road to War: Decades of Imperial Ambition and Mounting Tensions

The Second Sino-Japanese War was not an isolated event but the culmination of a decades-long, aggressive Japanese imperialist policy. Driven by a pressing need to secure access to vital raw material reserves, food supplies, and a readily available labor force for its burgeoning industrial economy, Japan systematically sought to expand its political and military influence across East Asia, particularly within China.

Post-World War I Strains:
The period following World War I intensified existing pressures on Japan's domestic and foreign policies. Internally, a growing leftist movement advocated for universal suffrage and greater rights for workers, creating social and political unrest. Economically, increasing textile production from Chinese mills began adversely affecting Japanese industrial output, while the Great Depression brought about a sharp and damaging slowdown in global exports. These multifaceted pressures contributed significantly to the rise of militant nationalism within Japan, culminating in the ascendance to power of a powerful militarist faction. This faction, at its zenith, operated under the influence of Emperor Hirohito and was notably led by the Hideki Tojo cabinet, a key component of the Imperial Rule Assistance Association.
Early Aggressions and "Incidents":
The path to full-scale war was paved with a series of aggressive acts and localized conflicts. In 1931, the infamous Mukden Incident, a false-flag operation orchestrated by Japanese military elements, served as the pretext for Japan's full-scale invasion of Manchuria. Despite fierce but ultimately outmatched resistance, Chinese forces were defeated, and Japan established Manchukuo, a puppet state, in the region. Many historians regard this 1931 invasion as an earlier, perhaps unofficial, beginning of the long Sino-Japanese conflict. From 1931 to 1937, China and Japan remained locked in a series of smaller, localized engagements, often referred to as "incidents," which steadily eroded peace and trust.

Escalation to Full-Scale Conflict and Chinese Resilience

Following the Marco Polo Bridge Incident in July 1937, Japanese forces quickly pressed their advantage, achieving significant early victories. They captured key urban centers, including Beijing (Peking), Shanghai, and the then-Chinese capital of Nanjing. The fall of Nanjing in December 1937 was tragically followed by the Rape of Nanjing, a horrific period of mass murder and rape committed by Japanese troops against Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants, a stark illustration of the war's brutality.

Chinese Resilience and International Support

The War's Global Integration and China's Victory

The conflict in Asia dramatically transformed on December 7, 1941, when Japan launched its surprise attack on Pearl Harbor and simultaneously declared war on the United States. In turn, the United States declared war on Japan, significantly increasing its flow of aid to China. Under the crucial Lend-Lease Act, the United States eventually provided China with an astonishing total of approximately $1.6 billion in assistance (equivalent to over $18.4 billion adjusted for inflation), fundamentally bolstering China's war effort. With traditional land routes like Burma cut off by Japanese advances, a massive logistical operation, known as "The Hump" airlift, commenced, ferrying critical materials and supplies over the treacherous Himalayas into beleaguered China.

Final Campaigns and Post-War Recognition

Key Questions About the Second Sino-Japanese War

What was the primary cause of the Second Sino-Japanese War?
The war was primarily caused by Japan's long-standing imperialistic ambitions to expand its political and military influence in China, driven by the need for raw materials, food, and labor to support its industrialization and perceived national security interests.
When is the Second Sino-Japanese War conventionally considered to have begun?
The conventional start date is July 7, 1937, with the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, which escalated into a full-scale Japanese invasion of China.
Why is the Second Sino-Japanese War sometimes referred to as "the Asian Holocaust"?
This term highlights the immense scale of human suffering and atrocities, including mass murders, rapes (like the Rape of Nanjing), and widespread famine, that resulted in the deaths of millions of Chinese civilians and military personnel, making it the deadliest Asian conflict of the 20th century.
What was the significance of the "Flying Tigers" in the war?
The Flying Tigers were American volunteer pilots who provided crucial air support to China before the official U.S. entry into World War II, engaging Japanese forces in aerial combat and helping to defend Chinese supply routes.

The Defense of Harbin: An Early Chapter in the Manchurian Invasion

The Defense of Harbin occurred during the early stages of the Second Sino-Japanese War, specifically as a component of the broader campaign for the Invasion of Manchuria by forces of the Empire of Japan. This particular engagement unfolded from January 25 to February 4, 1932. (Note: The original text provided simplified Chinese and traditional Chinese characters for Harbin, which are not renderable in this format).