Marcian, Byzantine emperor (b. 392)

Flavius Marcianus Augustus, commonly known as Marcian (Latin: Marcianus; Greek: Μαρκιανός Markianos; c. 392 – 27 January 457), served as the Eastern Roman Emperor from 450 to 457 CE. His seven-year reign is often regarded as a period of significant stabilization and renewal for the Eastern Roman Empire, particularly following the tumultuous rule of his predecessor, Theodosius II.

Marcian's Early Life and Ascent to the Imperial Throne

Details regarding Marcian's early life before his accession to the throne are scarce, yet what is known points to a career rooted in military service. He spent approximately fifteen years as a domesticus, a high-ranking staff officer or personal assistant, serving under two of the most influential military commanders of the era: Ardabur, and subsequently his son, Aspar. Aspar, an Alanic general who held the prestigious title of magister militum (Master of Soldiers), wielded immense power within the Eastern Roman court, effectively acting as a kingmaker.

What was a domesticus?
In the Late Roman military, a domesticus was a member of the imperial bodyguard or a staff officer attached to the personal retinue of high-ranking officials or the emperor himself. This position provided Marcian with valuable administrative and military experience, as well as crucial connections within the corridors of power.

Following the accidental death of Emperor Theodosius II on 28 July 450, a power vacuum emerged. Aspar, recognizing Marcian's capabilities and perhaps perceiving him as a potentially malleable figure due to his non-noble origins, put him forward as a leading candidate for the vacant imperial throne. To legitimize Marcian's claim and link him to the established Theodosian dynasty, a crucial political alliance was forged. After approximately a month of intense negotiations, Pulcheria, Theodosius II's formidable and highly respected sister who had previously been an Augusta and co-ruler, agreed to a political marriage with Marcian. This union was likely a chaste or "virginal marriage," as Pulcheria had earlier taken a vow of virginity, but it effectively granted Marcian the necessary dynastic legitimacy.

These complex negotiations may also have involved Zeno, an influential Isaurian military leader whose power rivaled that of Aspar. His involvement is suggested by the fact that upon Marcian's inauguration on 25 August 450, Zeno was granted the esteemed court title of patrician, signaling a broad consensus among the powerful military factions for Marcian's elevation.

Defying Attila and Restoring Roman Might

One of Marcian's most decisive and immediate actions as emperor was a radical reversal of the Eastern Roman Empire's long-standing policy towards the Huns under their feared leader, Attila. Theodosius II had pursued a policy of appeasement, paying vast annual tributes to the Hunnic Empire, which drained the imperial treasury. Marcian, with remarkable courage and strategic foresight, almost immediately revoked all treaties with Attila and ceased all subsidy payments, effectively declaring an end to the debilitating appeasement policy.

Marcian's defiance proved strategically brilliant. In 452, as Attila launched a devastating invasion into Italy, then a part of the Western Roman Empire, Marcian seized the opportunity. He initiated military expeditions across the Danube River into the Great Hungarian Plain, the very heartland of the Hunnic confederation. These incursions, though perhaps not large-scale invasions, served a critical purpose: they threatened Attila's vulnerable supply lines and rear flank, forcing him to consider the security of his own territory.

This bold maneuver, coupled with the outbreak of famine and plague in northern Italy, significantly weakened Attila's position. The combined pressure ultimately allowed the Western Roman Empire to successfully negotiate Attila's retreat from the Italian peninsula through a combination of diplomacy (most famously, the intervention of Pope Leo I) and, ironically, the promise of resumed payments, which Marcian's actions had made more palatable. Marcian's initiative arguably saved the Western Roman Empire from complete devastation at that critical juncture.

Theological Leadership and Internal Policies

Marcian's reign also saw significant internal reforms and a pivotal moment in Christian history. After Attila's sudden death in 453, the Hunnic confederation fragmented, presenting Marcian with a new geopolitical landscape. He skillfully capitalized on this dissolution by settling various Germanic tribes within Roman lands, granting them status as foederati. These "federates" provided military service to the Empire in exchange for benefits such as land or subsidies, a policy that helped to both secure the borders and integrate potential threats.

What were foederati?
Foederati were foreign tribes or groups that were bound by treaty (foedus) to the Roman Empire. They typically provided military assistance in exchange for land, resources, or subsidies, operating as semi-autonomous units within or along the Empire's borders. Marcian's strategic use of foederati aimed to rebuild Roman defensive capabilities after the Hunnic threat.

Beyond military and financial matters, Marcian also played a crucial role in shaping Christian doctrine. In 451, he convened the Council of Chalcedon, one of the most significant ecumenical councils in the history of Christianity. The Council addressed the escalating Christological controversies, particularly the nature of Jesus Christ.

The Council of Chalcedon's declaration, known as the Chalcedonian Definition, affirmed that Jesus Christ possesses two distinct "natures"—fully divine and fully human—united in one person without confusion, change, division, or separation (Dyophysitism). While this formulation became the official Christology of the Byzantine Church and most of Western Christianity, it also led to the deep alienation of significant populations in the eastern provinces of Syria and Egypt. Many in these regions adhered to Miaphysitism, a theological position that, while not identical to Monophysitism, rejected the specific Chalcedonian phrasing, leading to a lasting schism within Eastern Christianity that had profound long-term political and social ramifications for the Empire.

Legacy and Succession

Marcian died on 27 January 457, leaving behind a remarkable legacy of astute leadership and financial prudence. Perhaps his most tangible achievement was the state of the imperial treasury: he bequeathed to his successor a surplus of seven million solidi coins.

What was the solidus?
The solidus was a high-purity gold coin introduced by Emperor Constantine the Great, serving as the stable backbone of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) economy for centuries. Marcian's ability to accumulate such a vast surplus demonstrated exceptional financial management, especially given the preceding economic strain caused by the Hunnic tributes and the general turmoil of the period.

This impressive financial feat stands in stark contrast to the economic ruin inflicted by Theodosius II's tribute payments to the Huns and provided a solid financial foundation for the Empire in the decades to come.

After Marcian's death, Aspar, still wielding immense power, once again played the role of kingmaker. He bypassed Marcian's son-in-law, Anthemius (who would later become Western Roman Emperor), and instead arranged for his own military commander, Leo I, to be elected as the new Eastern Roman Emperor. This decision, however, eventually led to a fierce power struggle between Leo and Aspar, as the new emperor proved far less pliable than Aspar had anticipated.