Douglas Haig, 1st Earl Haig, Scottish field marshal (b. 1861)
Field Marshal Douglas Haig, 1st Earl Haig (19 June 1861 – 29 January 1928), was a distinguished and controversial senior officer of the British Army, whose career spanned several significant conflicts before he rose to prominence during the First World War. His extensive military background included service in the Sudan and the Second Boer War, where he gained experience in cavalry command and staff work, contributing to his appointment to the highest echelons of military leadership.
During the pivotal years of the First World War, Haig assumed command of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) on the Western Front from late 1915 until the armistice in November 1918. This period encompassed some of the war's most defining and devastating engagements.
Major Campaigns and Battles Under Haig's Command
As Commander-in-Chief of the BEF, Haig oversaw British forces through a series of colossal and often attritional battles:
The Battle of the Somme (1916): A gruelling offensive designed to relieve pressure on French forces at Verdun and break the stalemate of trench warfare. Though it resulted in immense casualties on both sides, it was also a critical learning experience for the British Army in terms of logistics, artillery, and combined arms tactics.
The Battle of Arras (1917): An Allied offensive that saw significant initial gains, particularly at Vimy Ridge, demonstrating evolving British tactical capabilities, though the wider offensive eventually stalled.
The Third Battle of Ypres (Passchendaele, 1917): Known for its horrific conditions, including deep mud and relentless artillery barrages, this costly battle aimed to capture German submarine bases on the Belgian coast and further wear down the German Army. Despite the heavy losses, it did achieve limited strategic objectives and continued to inflict attrition on the German forces.
The German Spring Offensive (1918): A desperate series of German attacks designed to achieve a decisive victory before American forces could fully deploy. Haig's forces endured immense pressure but ultimately held their lines, preventing a German breakthrough and contributing to the eventual exhaustion of German military resources.
The Hundred Days Offensive (1918): This final, highly successful Allied push saw Haig's BEF play a central role, spearheading attacks that decisively broke German resistance. This campaign marked a significant evolution in British military tactics, employing effective coordination between infantry, artillery, tanks, and air support.
Post-War Reputation and Subsequent Historical Reassessment
Immediately following the First World War, Field Marshal Haig enjoyed a highly favourable public reputation. His funeral in 1928 was a major national event, marked as a day of national mourning, reflecting the widespread belief that he had led Britain to victory.
However, beginning in the 1960s, a critical re-evaluation of Haig's leadership emerged, significantly altering public and historical perception. He became an object of intense criticism, leading to the pejorative nickname "Butcher Haig" due to the staggering two million British casualties sustained under his command. The Canadian War Museum succinctly captures this sentiment, noting: "His epic but costly offensives at the Somme (1916) and Passchendaele (1917) have become nearly synonymous with the carnage and futility of First World War battles." This view often emphasized the perceived static nature of trench warfare and the high price paid for minimal territorial gains.
A More Nuanced Perspective: The Revisionist View
Conversely, a more nuanced and increasingly prevalent historical perspective has developed since the 1980s, challenging the "Butcher Haig" narrative. While acknowledging the immense costs, many historians, including Haig's biographer Major-General Sir John Davidson, have argued for a more balanced assessment of his command. This revisionist view highlights several key factors:
The Hundred Days Offensive as a Strategic Triumph: Haig led the BEF during the final, highly effective Hundred Days Offensive, which saw British forces, alongside their Allies, achieve decisive breakthroughs. This included the crucial crossing of the Canal du Nord and the breaching of the formidable German Hindenburg Line, leading to the capture of 195,000 German prisoners. This campaign, combined with the collapse of morale and civil unrest within Germany (such as the Kiel and Wilhelmshaven mutinies and the proclamation of a republic on 9 November 1918), directly contributed to the Armistice of 11 November 1918. Many historians now consider this a pivotal achievement, representing one of the greatest victories ever achieved by a British-led army.
Adaptation of Tactics and Technology: Contrary to the image of an unyielding traditionalist, forces under Haig's command demonstrated a significant capacity for learning and adaptation. They adopted and refined new tactics, such as the creeping barrage, integrated tanks and aircraft into combined arms operations, and improved artillery-infantry cooperation. This evolution was crucial for the successes of 1918.
British Contribution to Allied Victory: The vital role played by British forces in the Allied victory of 1918 is often underappreciated. The BEF bore a significant burden of the fighting on the Western Front, particularly in the later stages, and their capacity to absorb German attacks in spring 1918 and then launch devastating counter-offensives was instrumental to the Allied triumph.
The Realities of Attritional Warfare: High casualties were an unavoidable consequence of the tactical and strategic realities of the time. The First World War, particularly on the Western Front, was largely a war of attrition, characterized by heavily fortified defensive lines, machine gun fire, and powerful artillery. All major combatants suffered immense losses, and strategic alternatives to costly frontal assaults were often limited by the technology and military doctrine of the era. Haig's defenders argue that given the conditions, his strategy was a grim but necessary path to victory.
Frequently Asked Questions About Field Marshal Douglas Haig
- Who was Field Marshal Douglas Haig?
- Douglas Haig was a senior British Army officer who served as Commander-in-Chief of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) on the Western Front during the First World War from late 1915 until the end of the conflict.
- What was Haig's role in the First World War?
- He commanded the BEF in major engagements such as the Battles of the Somme, Arras, Passchendaele, and the final, successful Hundred Days Offensive in 1918, which led to the armistice.
- Why is Douglas Haig a controversial figure?
- Haig is controversial primarily due to the high number of British casualties (approximately two million) sustained under his command during the war. Critics label him "Butcher Haig," particularly for his leadership during attritional battles like the Somme and Passchendaele, which are often perceived as costly and futile.
- Has historical opinion on Haig changed over time?
- Yes. While initially praised as a war hero, Haig's reputation declined sharply from the 1960s. However, since the 1980s, a revisionist view has emerged among historians who argue for a more balanced assessment, highlighting his adaptability, the significant British contribution to the Allied victory in 1918, and the harsh realities of warfare at the time.
- Did Haig's forces adopt new tactics during the war?
- Yes, despite initial perceptions, forces under Haig's command increasingly adopted and refined new tactics and technologies throughout the war. This included improved artillery techniques like the creeping barrage, better coordination between infantry, artillery, tanks, and air support, all of which contributed significantly to the successes of the final Hundred Days Offensive.