Ioannis Metaxas, Greek general and politician, 130th Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1871)

Introduction to Ioannis Metaxas: A Transformative Figure in Greek History

Ioannis Metaxas (12 April 1871 – 29 January 1941) was a profoundly influential Greek military officer and politician, whose career culminated in his service as Prime Minister of Greece from 1936 until his death in 1941. His tenure began constitutionally, but within a mere four months, he dramatically shifted the nation's political course, establishing himself as the strongman behind the authoritarian 4th of August Regime, following his appointment by King George II.

Early Life, Military Prowess, and Political Awakening

A Distinguished Military Career

Born into an aristocratic family on the Ionian island of Ithaca, Ioannis Metaxas embarked on a distinguished military career that saw him rapidly ascend the ranks of the Hellenic Army. He received his advanced military education at the prestigious German General Staff Academy, a testament to his early strategic acumen and discipline. Metaxas gained invaluable combat experience and recognition during the Greco-Turkish War of 1897, a conflict that, despite its overall humbling outcome for Greece, provided critical lessons. He later played a significant role in the victorious Balkan Wars (1912–1913), which dramatically expanded Greek territories and solidified his reputation as a capable military leader.

The National Schism and Political Exile

As a staunch Monarchist, Metaxas found himself at the epicentre of the National Schism, a profound political and social division that gripped Greece during the early 20th century. This bitter struggle pitted the pro-German King Constantine I against the liberal statesman Eleftherios Venizelos, who advocated for alignment with the Triple Entente during World War I. Metaxas vehemently opposed Prime Minister Venizelos's push for Greece's entry into the war, arguing for neutrality or a pro-German stance based on his strategic assessments and perceived Greek unpreparedness. His persistent opposition led to his exile to Corsica in 1917, a common fate for prominent political figures who challenged the dominant faction during this turbulent period.

Transition to Politics and Limited Success

Following his return to Greece, Metaxas shifted his focus from military command to the political arena, founding the Freethinkers' Party. Despite his military background and strong convictions, his monarchist views and the volatile political climate of the nascent Hellenic Republic meant he achieved only limited electoral success. The period was marked by frequent governmental changes and republican-monarchist oscillations, which hindered the sustained growth of any single political movement outside the mainstream.

The Ascent to Power: The 4th of August Regime

Appointment as Prime Minister Amidst Crisis

The restoration of the Greek monarchy in 1935, coupled with a period of severe political instability, parliamentary deadlock, and escalating labour unrest, set the stage for Metaxas's rise. In April 1936, amidst fears of a communist uprising and a fragmented political landscape, King George II, seeking a strong hand to restore order, appointed Ioannis Metaxas as Prime Minister. This appointment was a surprising move, given the limited popular support for Metaxas's party, but reflected the King's desire for a decisive leader.

Establishing the Authoritarian 4th of August Regime

On August 4, 1936, with the unwavering support of King George II, Metaxas orchestrated a "self-coup." He suspended key articles of the constitution, dissolved the parliament, and established an authoritarian, nationalist, and staunchly anti-communist regime, often referred to as the "4th of August Regime" (Το Καθεστώς της 4ης Αυγούστου). This new government adopted elements of contemporary fascist states, implementing widespread censorship, suppressing all political parties and trade unions, and establishing the Ethniki Organosis Neolaias (EON), a national youth organization designed to indoctrinate young Greeks with the regime's ideology and promote national unity. While repressive of political freedoms, the regime also initiated social welfare programs, including a minimum wage and social insurance, alongside significant public works projects, aiming to gain popular support and modernize the country.

Greece Enters World War II: "Ohi Day"

Defending Neutrality and Rejecting Aggression

As World War II loomed and subsequently engulfed Europe, Ioannis Metaxas initially strove to maintain Greek neutrality, acutely aware of the nation's military limitations and strategic vulnerability. However, Greece's geographical position and the expansionist ambitions of Fascist Italy made this neutrality unsustainable. On October 28, 1940, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini issued an ultimatum to Greece, demanding the surrender of strategic Greek territory and the free passage of Italian troops. Metaxas's legendary response was a resolute and unequivocal "No" (ΟΧΙ), a decision that irrevocably committed Greece to the Allied cause and brought the country directly into World War II.

The Greco-Italian War and a Nation's Stand

This rejection of the Italian ultimatum marked the beginning of the Greco-Italian War. Despite being significantly outnumbered and outgunned, the Hellenic Army, under inspired leadership and with fervent national resolve, mounted a formidable defense. Against all expectations, Greek forces not only repelled the Italian invasion from Albania but pushed deep into Albanian territory, achieving the first significant Allied victory against the Axis powers in World War II. This heroic stand captivated international attention and remains a profound source of national pride for Greece, celebrated annually as Ohi Day.

Legacy and Unexpected Demise

Ioannis Metaxas died unexpectedly on January 29, 1941, reportedly due to complications from pharyngitis leading to septicaemia. His death, occurring just months before the devastating German invasion of Greece in April 1941 (Operation Marita) and the subsequent occupation, left a void in the country's wartime leadership. Despite the authoritarian nature of his 4th of August Regime, Metaxas's defiant stance against Italian aggression and his role in galvanizing the nation during the initial stages of World War II have indelibly shaped his complex historical legacy, ensuring his remembrance as a figure of both controversy and national resolve.

Frequently Asked Questions About Ioannis Metaxas and His Era

What was the 4th of August Regime?
The 4th of August Regime was an authoritarian, nationalist, and anti-communist government established in Greece on August 4, 1936, by Ioannis Metaxas, with the full backing of King George II. It marked the end of parliamentary democracy in Greece for a period, characterized by the suspension of constitutional liberties, censorship, and the suppression of political opposition, including communist movements and trade unions.
What was Ioannis Metaxas's primary role in World War II?
Ioannis Metaxas's most notable contribution to World War II was his categorical rejection of the Italian ultimatum on October 28, 1940. This pivotal decision brought Greece into the war on the side of the Allies. Under his leadership, the Greek armed forces achieved remarkable initial successes against the invading Italian army during the Greco-Italian War, surprising the world with their determined resistance.
Why is Ohi Day (No Day) celebrated in Greece?
Ohi Day, celebrated annually on October 28, commemorates Ioannis Metaxas's decisive "No" (ΟΧΙ) to the Italian ultimatum in 1940. It symbolizes Greece's courageous stand against Axis aggression and its unwavering commitment to freedom and national sovereignty during World War II. It is one of the most important national holidays in Greece, honoring the nation's resistance.