The Politburo of the Soviet Union orders the extermination of the Kulaks.

Understanding Key Terms in Communist History and Ideology

In the context of communist political structures and historical societal transformations, two distinct yet interconnected terms frequently emerge: the Politburo, representing the pinnacle of party power, and Kulak, a descriptor for a class of peasants deemed enemies of the Soviet state.

The Politburo: The Core of Communist Power

A Politburo, a portmanteau of "political bureau," stands as the executive committee and supreme policy-making body within most communist parties globally. It serves as the ultimate decision-making authority, guiding the party's direction and overseeing its implementation of policies. Historically, its prominence grew significantly within the Soviet Union, where the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union wielded immense power, often surpassing the formal governmental structures themselves. Established by the Bolsheviks in 1917, the Politburo's role was to consolidate control and make critical strategic decisions for the party. This model was subsequently adopted by many other communist states, including contemporary ones like China, Vietnam, and Cuba, where it continues to function as the central organ for setting national policy and political strategy.

What is the primary function of a Politburo?

The primary function of a Politburo is to serve as the highest executive and policy-making committee within a communist party, responsible for crucial decisions, strategic planning, and the day-to-day governance of the party's affairs and, by extension, the state's direction.

The Kulak: A Shifting Definition of Class Enemy

The term "Kulak" (Russian: ), plural "Kulaki" (Russian: ), etymologically meaning 'fist' or 'tight-fisted', was a pejorative and evolving descriptor used in the Russian Empire and later the Soviet Union. It also had regional variants such as "kurkul" (Ukrainian: ) and "golchomag" (Azerbaijani: qolomaq, plural: qolomaqlar). Initially, towards the end of the Russian Empire, "Kulak" referred to wealthier peasants who owned significant tracts of land, typically exceeding 8 acres (3.2 hectares).

Evolution of the Term "Kulak"

The economic distinction of "Kulak" gained prominence during the Stolypin agrarian reforms from 1906 to 1914. These reforms, championed by Prime Minister Pyotr Stolypin, aimed to reduce rural radicalism by fostering a class of prosperous, independent, and politically conservative farmers who would act as a stable backbone for the monarchy. Peasants who benefited from these reforms and accumulated more land or capital were often labeled Kulaks.

However, the meaning of "Kulak" dramatically shifted and became politicized during the Russian Revolution and the early Soviet Union. It transformed from a general economic descriptor into a vague, often derogatory, term for peasants perceived as hesitant or outright hostile to the Bolshevik Revolution. During the critical period of War Communism (1918-1921), the term was weaponized to chastise peasants who withheld grain from state requisitions, a practice seen as sabotaging the revolution's efforts to feed the cities and the Red Army.

According to Marxist-Leninist political theories prevalent in the early 20th century, Kulaks were ideologically branded as "class enemies" of the poorer peasantry, farm laborers, and the urban proletariat. Vladimir Lenin himself vehemently denounced them, famously describing them as "bloodsuckers, vampires, plunderers of the people and profiteers, who fatten themselves during famines." He called for a revolutionary struggle against them, advocating for the liberation of the poorer rural populace from their supposed exploitation.

Dekulakization: Stalin's Campaign Against "Wealthy" Peasants

The most brutal application of the "Kulak" label occurred during Joseph Stalin's collectivization drive under the First Five-Year Plan (1928-1932). This period saw an all-out campaign to dismantle private land ownership and traditional peasant farming in favor of collective farms (kolkhozy). The definition of a "Kulak" became increasingly arbitrary and subjective, often applied to any peasant who resisted collectivization or simply appeared marginally better off than their neighbors. As historian Robert Conquest noted, even "peasants with a couple of cows or five or six acres [~2 ha] more than their neighbors" could be indiscriminately labeled Kulaks.

In 1929, Soviet officials formalized subjective criteria for classifying Kulaks, which included the use of hired labor, ownership of a mill or processing facility, or even having a larger house. This paved the way for "dekulakization," a brutal state-sponsored campaign aimed at eliminating this perceived class. Government officials seized farms, confiscated property, and took extreme measures against those labeled Kulaks:

In Ukraine during 1930-1931, the term "pidkurkulnyk" also emerged, referring to an "almost wealthy peasant" or "sub-kulak." These individuals, though not full Kulaks, were still considered to possess too much property or independence and faced similar, albeit sometimes less severe, repression.

Dekulakization fundamentally reshaped Soviet agriculture, liquidating private peasant farming and consolidating state control over food production, albeit at a tremendous human cost and significant disruption to agricultural output.

What was the main purpose of "dekulakization"?

The main purpose of "dekulakization" was to eliminate private land ownership among peasants, suppress any resistance to the forced collectivization of agriculture, and consolidate state control over food production, thereby providing resources for rapid industrialization under Stalin's First Five-Year Plan.