Sri Lankan Civil War: Sri Lankan Tamil politician Kumar Ponnambalam is shot dead in Colombo.

The Sri Lankan Civil War: A Comprehensive Overview (1983-2009)

The Sri Lankan Civil War, known in Sinhala as ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ සිවිල් යුද්ධය and in Tamil as இலங்கை உள்நாட்டுப் போர் (Ilaṅkai uḷnāṭṭup pōr), was a protracted and devastating armed conflict that gripped the island nation of Sri Lanka for over two and a half decades, from July 23, 1983, to May 2009. This internal conflict primarily pitted the government of Sri Lanka, largely dominated by the Sinhalese ethnic majority, against the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), commonly referred to as the Tamil Tigers. Led by Velupillai Prabhakaran, the LTTE’s primary objective was the establishment of an independent Tamil state, known as Tamil Eelam, in the north and east of the island. This aspiration arose from deep-seated grievances among Sri Lankan Tamils, including decades of systematic discrimination and violent persecution by successive Sinhalese-dominated governments.

Roots of the Conflict: Historical Discrimination and Violence

The genesis of the civil war is deeply rooted in historical ethnic tensions that intensified significantly following Sri Lanka's independence from the British Empire in 1948. A critical turning point occurred shortly after independence when the "Sinhala Only Act" was enacted in 1956, officially recognizing Sinhala as the sole official language of the nation. This controversial legislation effectively marginalized the Tamil language and its speakers, undermining their access to education, employment, and public services. Beyond linguistic discrimination, a series of anti-Tamil pogroms, often carried out by majority Sinhalese mobs with alleged state complicity or inaction, erupted across the island. Notable instances include the violent outbreaks in 1956, 1958, 1977, 1981, and the catastrophic events of July 1983, widely known as "Black July," which served as the immediate catalyst for the full-scale civil war. A particularly symbolic act of cultural destruction was the 1981 burning of the Jaffna Public Library, a repository of over 97,000 unique Tamil books and manuscripts, representing a profound loss for Tamil cultural heritage. These incidents fostered a sense of alienation and injustice among the Tamil minority, laying the groundwork for armed resistance.

The War's Trajectory: Failed Peace Attempts and Final Offensive

The conflict saw over two decades of intense fighting interspersed with multiple, ultimately unsuccessful, attempts at negotiated peace. The challenges in achieving a lasting settlement were exacerbated by a profound lack of trust between the warring parties and the LTTE's unwavering demand for a separate state. A significant international intervention occurred with the deployment of the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) from 1987 to 1990. However, the IPKF's mission faced complex challenges, including hostilities with the LTTE, and ultimately withdrew without achieving its objective of disarming the Tamil militants and establishing peace.

A fragile hope for peace emerged in December 2001 with a ceasefire declaration, followed by the signing of a Ceasefire Agreement (CFA) in 2002, facilitated by international mediation, particularly from Norway. This period, though marked by relative calm, was characterized by continued political assassinations and rearmament by the LTTE, leading to a gradual breakdown of the agreement. Limited hostilities resumed in late 2005, escalating into major military offensives launched by the Sri Lankan government from July 2006. These offensives initially focused on clearing the LTTE from the Eastern Province of the island. Following these defeats, the LTTE defiantly declared its intention to "resume their freedom struggle to achieve statehood."

In 2007, the government shifted its strategic focus to the north of the country, the LTTE's primary stronghold. On January 2, 2008, the government formally withdrew from the Ceasefire Agreement, citing over 10,000 alleged violations by the LTTE. Aided by the successful destruction of several large arms smuggling vessels belonging to the LTTE and an intensified international crackdown on the group's funding networks, the Sri Lankan Armed Forces launched a decisive final offensive. This campaign systematically dismantled the LTTE's control over vast territories, capturing key strategic locations including their de facto administrative capital Kilinochchi, their main military base in Mullaitivu, and the vital A9 highway. The relentless military pressure ultimately led the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam to admit defeat on May 17, 2009, effectively bringing the 26-year civil war to an end.

Humanitarian Impact and Post-War Accountability

The human cost of the Sri Lankan Civil War was immense, with casualty figures remaining a subject of significant debate and controversy. By 2007, an estimated 70,000 lives had been lost. Immediately following the conclusion of the war on May 20, 2009, the United Nations initially estimated a total death toll of 80,000–100,000. However, a 2011 report by the Secretary-General's Panel of Experts on Accountability in Sri Lanka, focusing specifically on the final phase of the war in 2009, indicated that "A number of credible sources have estimated that there could have been as many as 40,000 civilian deaths." Other sources, analyzing census discrepancies, suggested that up to 140,000 people were unaccounted for during this period alone. A 2012 review by the Secretary-General's Internal Review Panel on United Nations Action in Sri Lanka further highlighted the divergence in figures, noting that while some government sources placed the number of deaths well below 10,000, credible information indicated over 70,000 people were unaccounted for.

Since the war's end, the Sri Lankan state has faced significant international criticism and scrutiny over alleged human rights violations and war crimes. These accusations include the indiscriminate bombing of civilian targets, the excessive use of heavy weaponry in densely populated areas, the abduction and massacre of Sri Lankan Tamils, and widespread reports of sexual violence. Furthermore, reports have emerged, including those from military whistleblowers, alleging cover-ups, the burial of bodies in mass graves, and the use of chemicals to dissolve human remains to conceal evidence. The Sri Lankan government has consistently refused an independent, international investigation into these allegations, citing issues of national sovereignty and preferring internal accountability mechanisms.

What human rights abuses were attributed to the LTTE?
The LTTE gained notoriety for its own extensive record of human rights abuses and acts of terrorism. This included numerous attacks against civilians of all ethnicities, particularly Sinhalese and Sri Lankan Muslim communities, as well as the systematic use of child soldiers (often forcibly recruited), high-profile assassinations of politicians and human rights activists, and the widespread deployment of suicide bombings, primarily targeting military personnel and infrastructure, but also civilians.
Were external actors involved in military training?
Yes. British mercenaries affiliated with the private military contractor Keenie Meenie Services, which provided training to the Special Task Force of the Sri Lanka Police, came under investigation by the Metropolitan Police for their alleged involvement in war crimes during the conflict. This highlights the complex international dimensions of the conflict and its enduring legal and ethical aftermath.

Post-War Landscape and Reconciliation Efforts

Following the LTTE's military defeat, the political landscape in Sri Lanka underwent significant shifts. The Tamil National Alliance (TNA), a prominent political party that had previously been aligned with the LTTE's separatist demands, announced a shift in its stance, favoring a federal solution within a united Sri Lanka rather than an independent state. In May 2010, the then President of Sri Lanka, Mahinda Rajapaksa, established the Lessons Learnt and Reconciliation Commission (LLRC). The LLRC's mandate was to assess the conflict, particularly the period between the 2002 Ceasefire Agreement and the LTTE's defeat in 2009. While the LLRC's final report made recommendations for reconciliation and accountability, it faced criticism from international human rights organizations for not adequately addressing alleged war crimes and for lacking independence.

How are the victims of the war remembered?
The end of the war and its myriad victims are commemorated through various observances. Sri Lanka holds a National Remembrance Day, often viewed through the lens of military victory. Conversely, the Mullivaikkal Remembrance Day, observed predominantly by the Tamil community, specifically commemorates the lives lost during the final, brutal phase of the war in May 2009, at Mullivaikkal, the site of the LTTE's final stand.

Notable Figure: Kumar Ponnambalam (1938-2000)

Amidst the broader narrative of the civil war and ethnic tensions, individuals like Gaasinather Gangaser Ponnambalam (Tamil: காசிநாதர் கங்காதரன் பொன்னம்பலம்; born August 12, 1938 – died January 5, 2000), widely known as Kumar Ponnambalam, represent the complex political landscape. A prominent Sri Lankan lawyer and politician, he led the All Ceylon Tamil Congress and stood as a presidential candidate in 1982. Ponnambalam was tragically shot dead in January 2000, in an assassination that many observers and sources suspected was ordered by the then President Chandrika Kumaratunga, highlighting the deep political animosities and violence that characterized the era.