Millard Fillmore, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 13th President of the United States (d. 1874)

Millard Fillmore: The Thirteenth President and Last Whig in the White House

Millard Fillmore, born on January 7, 1800, and passing on March 8, 1874, served as the 13th President of the United States from 1850 to 1853. His presidency holds a unique place in American history, primarily because he was the last individual to hold the nation's highest office as a member of the Whig Party, a major political force in the mid-19th century that would soon dissolve amidst escalating sectional tensions. Before his unexpected ascension to the presidency, Fillmore had established a robust political career, representing Upstate New York in the U.S. House of Representatives.

In the pivotal 1848 election, Fillmore was elected as the 12th Vice President, serving alongside President Zachary Taylor. His tenure as Vice President was brief, as he succeeded to the presidency in July 1850 following the sudden and unexpected death of President Taylor. This unforeseen transition thrust Fillmore into a critical period of national crisis, demanding decisive leadership on the most contentious issue of the era.

Navigating the Compromise of 1850

A defining moment of Fillmore's presidency was his instrumental role in the passage of the Compromise of 1850. This complex legislative package was a monumental effort to address and temporarily quell the intense debate over the expansion of slavery into new territories acquired from the Mexican-American War. While it offered a fragile and brief truce in the escalating battle between the North and South regarding slavery's future, its controversial elements, particularly the Fugitive Slave Act, ignited further division and ultimately contributed to the Whig Party's decline.

Following his presidential term, Fillmore sought the Whig nomination for a full term in 1852 but was unsuccessful, largely due to the internal rifts created by the Compromise. Four years later, he re-emerged on the national stage, gaining the endorsement of the nativist Know Nothing Party, also known as the American Party, for the 1856 presidential election. Despite their support, he finished a distant third, securing only the state of Maryland, which highlighted the dramatically shifting political landscape of the era and the growing dominance of the slavery issue over other concerns.

Frequently Asked Questions About Millard Fillmore's Presidency

Why is Millard Fillmore considered the last Whig President?
Fillmore was the last president to be elected as a Whig and to hold the office as a member of the Whig Party. After his term, the Whig Party rapidly declined and dissolved, primarily due to irreconcilable internal divisions over the issue of slavery, giving rise to new political alignments like the Republican Party.
What was the Compromise of 1850?
The Compromise of 1850 was a package of five separate bills passed by the U.S. Congress in September 1850, which sought to resolve various territorial and slavery-related disputes following the Mexican-American War. Key components included admitting California as a free state, organizing the Utah and New Mexico territories with popular sovereignty, abolishing the slave trade in Washington D.C., and enacting a stricter Fugitive Slave Act.

From Humble Beginnings to Political Prominence

Millard Fillmore's journey to the White House was a testament to his self-made determination, originating from extremely modest roots. He was born into profound poverty in the Finger Lakes region of New York State. During his formative years, his parents worked as tenant farmers, a challenging existence that provided him with limited opportunities for formal education. Despite this, Fillmore possessed an insatiable desire for knowledge and self-improvement. Through diligent self-study, including teaching himself law by working for a local judge, he managed to transcend his impoverished background to become a successful attorney.

His legal success laid the groundwork for his political aspirations in the burgeoning Buffalo area. Fillmore quickly gained prominence as both a lawyer and a politician. His political career began in 1828 with his election to the New York Assembly. Just four years later, in 1832, he successfully secured a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives, marking his entry onto the national political stage.

Evolving Political Affiliations and Key Rivalries

Initially, Fillmore aligned himself with the Anti-Masonic Party, a short-lived but influential third party that emerged in the late 1820s and early 1830s, primarily opposing the perceived secrecy and influence of the Freemasons in American society. As the political landscape shifted, Fillmore transitioned to the newly formed Whig Party in the mid-1830s. The Whigs emerged as a formidable opposition to the policies of President Andrew Jackson and the Democratic Party, advocating for a strong Congress, national improvements like infrastructure, and a protective tariff to foster American industry.

Within the New York Whig Party, Fillmore found himself in a significant rivalry for state party leadership with Thurlow Weed, a powerful newspaper editor and astute political boss, and Weed's influential protégé, William H. Seward. This rivalry was not merely personal; it reflected a fundamental ideological divide within the party, particularly concerning the contentious issue of slavery. While Fillmore consistently declared slavery an evil, he maintained a strict constitutional interpretation, believing it was an institution beyond the direct intervention of the federal government. In stark contrast, William H. Seward, a staunch opponent of slavery, openly condemned it and argued for a more active federal role in its eventual eradication. These differing views would profoundly impact their respective careers and the future of the Whig Party itself.

In 1841, when the Whigs gained control of the U.S. House of Representatives, Fillmore was an unsuccessful candidate for Speaker, losing to John White. However, his influence and legislative acumen were recognized through his appointment as chairman of the powerful House Ways and Means Committee, a crucial committee responsible for all revenue-related legislation, including taxation and appropriations. Despite setbacks, including defeats in bids for the Whig vice-presidential nomination in 1844 and for New York governor in the same year, Fillmore achieved a notable victory in 1847, becoming the first Comptroller of New York to be directly elected by the people, a significant democratic reform that increased accountability in state finance.

The Vice Presidency and Sudden Ascension to the Presidency

As Vice President under Zachary Taylor, Millard Fillmore found himself largely marginalized. President Taylor, a military hero with limited political experience, often bypassed Fillore, even consulting his New York rivals like Thurlow Weed and William H. Seward for patronage appointments. Despite this, Fillmore played a crucial, albeit behind-the-scenes, role as President of the Senate. In this capacity, he presided over the intensely angry and protracted debates of the 31st Congress. The primary focus of these debates was the contentious question of whether to permit slavery in the vast territories acquired from Mexico following the Mexican-American War, known as the Mexican Cession.

During these heated discussions, Fillmore's stance diverged significantly from President Taylor's. Taylor was inclined to grant statehood to California and New Mexico without immediate resolution on slavery, a move many feared would exacerbate sectional tensions. Fillmore, however, strongly supported Senator Henry Clay's comprehensive legislative proposal, often referred to as the "Omnibus Bill." This ambitious bill aimed to resolve the various disputes arising from the Mexican Cession by proposing:

Fillmore's Presidency: Enforcing the Compromise and Shaping Foreign Policy

Upon President Taylor's sudden death in July 1850 due to a stomach ailment, Millard Fillmore immediately assumed the presidency. Demonstrating decisive leadership, he promptly dismissed Taylor's entire cabinet, signaling a clear shift in executive policy. Fillmore then exerted his full influence to push Congress to pass Henry Clay's Omnibus Bill, which became collectively known as the Compromise of 1850. His commitment to preserving the Union through this legislative package was unwavering, viewing it as the best path to avoid civil war at that moment.

The Compromise, while temporarily easing tensions, contained one particularly controversial element that would plague Fillmore's presidency and further divide the nation: the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850. This law significantly strengthened federal powers to apprehend and return alleged escaped slaves to those who claimed ownership, even in free states. It allowed federal commissioners to rule on the cases without jury trials, denying alleged fugitives the right to testify on their own behalf, and imposing severe penalties on those aiding runaway slaves. Fillmore, despite recognizing its detrimental impact on his own popularity and the unity of the already fracturing Whig Party (torn between its Northern and Southern factions), felt constitutionally duty-bound to enforce the law as passed by Congress. This commitment to the rule of law, even when unpopular, highlights a key aspect of his presidential philosophy.

Beyond domestic policy, Fillmore's administration also left its mark on American foreign relations. He actively supported U.S. Navy expeditions aimed at opening trade with isolationist Japan, most famously dispatching Commodore Matthew Perry in 1853. This expedition, though largely unfolding after Fillmore left office, was initiated under his direction and culminated in the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854, marking the end of Japan's 200-year policy of national seclusion and opening its ports to American trade. Fillmore also took a firm stance against French expansionist designs on Hawaii, asserting American interests in the Pacific as a strategic coaling station and potential naval base. Furthermore, his administration faced embarrassment due to the unauthorized "filibuster" expeditions led by Narciso López, a Venezuelan adventurer who repeatedly attempted to overthrow Spanish rule in Cuba, violating U.S. neutrality laws and creating diplomatic friction with Spain.

As his term neared its end, Fillmore sought the Whig nomination for a full presidential term in 1852. However, due to the deep divisions within the Whig Party, particularly over his enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act which alienated many Northern Whigs, he was passed over in favor of General Winfield Scott. This ultimately signaled the beginning of the end for the Whig Party as a dominant political force.

Post-Presidency: The Whig Party's Decline and Fillmore's Later Years

Following Fillmore's presidency, the Whig Party rapidly disintegrated, unable to reconcile its deep internal divisions, particularly over slavery. The Compromise of 1850, and especially the Fugitive Slave Act, proved to be an unsustainable compromise that tore the party's northern and southern wings apart. Many conservatives from Fillmore's wing of the party, disillusioned with both the Whigs and the rising abolitionist sentiment, gravitated towards the burgeoning Know Nothing Party, which rebranded itself as the American Party.

In 1856, Fillmore accepted the American Party's nomination for president. While the Know Nothing platform was primarily characterized by its nativist, anti-immigrant, and anti-Catholic sentiments, Fillmore largely avoided explicit anti-immigrant rhetoric during his campaign. Instead, he strategically focused on the paramount issue of preserving the Union, attempting to position himself as a national unity candidate amidst intensifying sectional strife. Despite his efforts, he managed to win only the state of Maryland in the general election, securing a mere 21.5% of the popular vote nationwide and finishing third behind Democrat James Buchanan and Republican John C. Frémont. This poor performance underscored the fundamental shift in American politics and the growing dominance of the slavery issue over other concerns.

Views on the Civil War and Reconstruction

During the tumultuous years leading up to and throughout the American Civil War, Millard Fillmore remained a vocal proponent of national unity. He unequivocally denounced secession, asserting that the Union must be maintained, by force if necessary. However, he also became a critic of President Abraham Lincoln's wartime policies, particularly actions such as the suspension of habeas corpus and the Emancipation Proclamation, which Fillmore, like many conservative Unionists, viewed as potentially unconstitutional or overly aggressive measures that could further alienate the border states and expand the conflict's scope beyond mere preservation of the Union.

After the conclusion of the Civil War and the restoration of peace, Fillmore offered his support to the Reconstruction policies championed by President Andrew Johnson. Johnson's approach, which favored a more lenient reintegration of the Southern states back into the Union compared to the Radical Republicans in Congress, aligned more closely with Fillmore's conservative principles of limited federal intervention and sectional reconciliation.

Retirement and Enduring Civic Contributions

In his retirement, Fillmore continued to be actively involved in civic interests and philanthropic endeavors in his beloved Buffalo, New York. A significant aspect of his post-presidential legacy is his dedication to education. He played a crucial role in the founding of the University of Buffalo in 1846, prior to his presidency, and later served as its first chancellor, a position he held until his death. His continued involvement in such institutions underscores his enduring commitment to public service and community development beyond the political arena.

Millard Fillmore's Legacy: Key Questions

Why did Millard Fillmore join the Know Nothing Party for the 1856 election?
After the Whig Party's collapse, Fillmore, along with many conservative former Whigs, found a temporary political home in the American Party, often referred to as the Know Nothings. While the party's platform was primarily nativist, Fillmore focused his campaign on the preservation of the Union, appealing to voters weary of sectional strife rather than emphasizing anti-immigrant sentiments.
What was Fillmore's stance on the American Civil War?
Fillmore firmly denounced secession and believed the Union should be preserved by force if necessary. However, he was critical of President Abraham Lincoln's more aggressive wartime policies, such as the suspension of habeas corpus and the Emancipation Proclamation, viewing them as potentially unconstitutional or overly broad executive actions.
What were some of Millard Fillmore's contributions outside of the presidency?
Beyond his political career, Fillmore was a dedicated civic leader. Notably, he was instrumental in the founding of the University of Buffalo in 1846 and later served as its first chancellor, demonstrating his lasting commitment to education and the development of his local community.