Deaths on May 1

Arcadius, Byzantine emperor (b. 337)

Flavius Arcadius (Greek: Ἀρκάδιος, Arkadios; c. 377 – 1 May 408 AD) presided over the Eastern Roman Empire during a pivotal and often turbulent period of late antiquity. As Roman emperor from 383 until his death in 408, his reign is particularly significant for witnessing the permanent division of the Roman Empire into distinct Eastern and Western halves, a monumental shift that shaped the course of European history for centuries to come.

Born around 377, Arcadius was the eldest son of the formidable Emperor Theodosius I, often referred to as 'The Great' (who reigned from 379 to 395 AD), and his first wife, Aelia Flaccilla. His younger brother was Honorius (who would later rule the Western Roman Empire from 393 to 423 AD). Theodosius I was a powerful figure who, for a brief period, managed to reunite the entire Roman Empire under his sole command following the death of Valentinian II in 392. However, this unity proved fleeting.

The Division of the Empire

The defining moment of Arcadius's imperial career, and indeed a watershed in Roman history, arrived with the death of his father, Theodosius I, on 17 January 395 AD. Following Theodosius's will, the vast Roman realm was formally and definitively partitioned between his two sons. Arcadius, as the elder, inherited the eastern portion of the empire, with its capital firmly established in the burgeoning city of Constantinople – a vibrant metropolis founded by Constantine the Great and increasingly a center of Greek culture and Orthodox Christianity. His younger brother, Honorius, was entrusted with the Western Roman Empire, which, despite retaining Rome as its spiritual heart, often saw its imperial court move between cities like Milan and Ravenna, particularly as external threats mounted.

This division was not merely administrative; it marked a profound divergence in the two halves of the empire's fates. The East, with its richer provinces, more urbanized landscape, and more defensible frontiers, was generally more prosperous and resilient, allowing it to endure for another thousand years as the Byzantine Empire. The West, by contrast, faced relentless barbarian invasions and economic strain, eventually leading to its collapse in 476 AD.

A Reign Under Influence: Ministers and Empress Aelia Eudoxia

Historians often characterize Arcadius as a weak or largely passive ruler, lacking the strong will and military acumen of his father. Consequently, his reign was largely shaped and dominated by a succession of powerful court officials and, notably, by his ambitious wife, Aelia Eudoxia. This dynamic contrasts sharply with the popular image of a Roman emperor as an absolute authority, revealing instead a court rife with intrigue and shifting power bases.

Powerful Ministers and Court Intrigues

• Rufinus (Prefect of the East): Initially, after Theodosius I's death, Rufinus, the Praetorian Prefect of the East, became the primary power behind Arcadius's throne. A cunning and avaricious figure, he wielded immense influence, often to his own benefit. His ambition, however, put him at odds with powerful military commanders, particularly Stilicho in the West, leading to intense rivalry and accusations of treason. He was eventually assassinated in 395, reportedly at the instigation of Stilicho.
• Eutropius (Eunuch and Chamberlain): Following Rufinus's downfall, the eunuch Eutropius rose to prominence, becoming one of the most powerful men in the Eastern Empire. He, too, sought to consolidate his power, engaging in political maneuvering and even leading military campaigns. His rise, however, was resented by many within the aristocracy and the military, and he faced constant opposition, eventually being overthrown and executed in 399.
• Gainas (Gothic General): After Eutropius, the Visigothic general Gainas briefly held sway. His influence highlighted the growing reliance of the Roman army on Germanic federate troops. However, his power grab, which included demanding a major church for Arian worship in Constantinople, sparked fierce anti-Gothic sentiment among the populace and aristocracy, leading to a violent uprising that resulted in the massacre of Goths in Constantinople and Gainas's subsequent defeat and death in 400.
• Anthemius (Praetorian Prefect): In the latter part of Arcadius's reign, the Praetorian Prefect Anthemius emerged as a stable and capable administrator. He effectively governed the Eastern Empire, stabilizing its finances, strengthening its defenses, and maintaining good relations with the Western court. His prudent leadership laid some of the groundwork for the Eastern Empire's continued stability.

Empress Aelia Eudoxia's Influence

Perhaps the most significant personal influence on Arcadius was his wife, Aelia Eudoxia. A woman of considerable beauty, intelligence, and ambition, she increasingly asserted herself in political affairs, often clashing with the powerful ministers and even influential church figures. Her rivalry with figures like Eutropius was well-documented, and she often used her position to promote her own interests and those of her allies. Her most famous conflict was with the Patriarch of Constantinople, John Chrysostom, whose outspoken criticisms of imperial extravagance and moral failings often targeted Eudoxia directly. This resulted in Chrysostom's repeated exiles, illustrating the significant power she wielded at court and her willingness to challenge even prominent religious authorities.

Legacy and Conclusion

Arcadius died on 1 May 408 AD, leaving the Eastern Empire to his young son, Theodosius II. Despite his personal reputation as a weak emperor, the Eastern Roman Empire under his reign, thanks in large part to the capable administration of figures like Anthemius, managed to navigate significant internal and external challenges. While the Western Empire continued its accelerating decline, the East largely preserved its territorial integrity and administrative structures, setting the stage for its long and distinguished history as the Byzantine Empire.

Frequently Asked Questions About Flavius Arcadius

Who was Flavius Arcadius?

Flavius Arcadius was the Roman Emperor who ruled the Eastern half of the Roman Empire from 395 to 408 AD. He was the elder son of Emperor Theodosius I and is significant for presiding over the permanent division of the Roman Empire.

What was the significance of 395 AD in his reign?

395 AD marks the death of his father, Theodosius I, and the definitive split of the Roman Empire into two separate entities: the Eastern Roman Empire under Arcadius, and the Western Roman Empire under his younger brother, Honorius. This division proved to be permanent.

Why is Arcadius often considered a weak ruler?

Arcadius is frequently described as a weak or indecisive emperor who largely allowed others to govern in his name. His reign was characterized by the dominant influence of powerful court ministers (such as Rufinus, Eutropius, and Gainas) and his ambitious wife, Aelia Eudoxia, who often directed policy and court affairs.

Who were the most influential figures during Arcadius's reign?

Key influential figures included a succession of Praetorian Prefects and court officials like Rufinus, the eunuch Eutropius, and the Gothic general Gainas, each vying for power. His empress, Aelia Eudoxia, also held considerable sway, often clashing with other powerful individuals and even the Patriarch John Chrysostom.

How did the Eastern Roman Empire fare under Arcadius compared to the West?

Despite Arcadius's perceived personal weakness, the Eastern Roman Empire generally fared better than the West during his reign. Thanks to more stable administration (especially under Anthemius), greater wealth, and more defensible borders, the East maintained its integrity, while the Western Empire faced increasing internal strife and barbarian invasions.

What was Arcadius's relationship with his wife, Aelia Eudoxia?

Aelia Eudoxia was a powerful and ambitious empress who exerted significant influence over Arcadius and court politics. She played an active role in imperial affairs, often promoting her own agenda and engaging in notable conflicts, most famously with the outspoken Patriarch John Chrysostom.