The U.S. Supreme Court rules in Shelley v. Kraemer that covenants prohibiting the sale of real estate to blacks and other minorities are legally unenforceable.

The Supreme Court of the United States (SCOTUS) stands as the pinnacle of the federal judiciary, serving as the ultimate arbiter of legal disputes under the U.S. Constitution and federal law. Established by Article Three of the United States Constitution, its role is foundational to the American system of checks and balances. Initially, the details of its composition and procedures were laid out by the 1st Congress through the landmark Judiciary Act of 1789, a foundational piece of legislation that shaped the very structure of the federal court system. Over time, its structure was further refined, with the Judiciary Act of 1869 famously setting the Court’s permanent size at the Chief Justice of the United States and eight Associate Justices, a composition that remains to this day.

The Court's primary function involves wielding ultimate and largely discretionary appellate jurisdiction. This means that while it is the final court of appeal, it selectively chooses which cases to hear from lower federal and state courts, typically those that present a significant question of federal law. This discretion is exercised through the granting of a writ of certiorari, a process where four of the nine justices must agree to hear a case. Beyond its appellate role, the Supreme Court also possesses a more limited original jurisdiction, meaning it is the first and only court to hear certain specific types of cases. These include "all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party"—situations that often involve sensitive diplomatic relations or disputes between states, necessitating a direct hearing by the nation's highest judicial body.

A cornerstone of the Supreme Court's power is judicial review, a doctrine not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution but firmly established by the Court itself in the seminal 1803 case of *Marbury v. Madison*. This formidable power allows the Court to invalidate a statute passed by Congress or a law enacted by a state legislature if it finds that the law violates a provision of the Constitution. Similarly, it can strike down presidential directives, such as executive orders, for violating either the Constitution or existing statutory law. However, this power is not boundless; the Court may only act within the context of a legitimate "case or controversy" in an area of law over which it has jurisdiction. While the Court may indeed decide cases carrying significant political overtones, it has historically maintained a strict stance that it lacks the authority to decide "non-justiciable political questions"—matters best resolved by the political branches of government, thus preserving the separation of powers.

Each justice on the Supreme Court holds lifetime tenure, a critical feature designed to ensure judicial independence and insulate them from political pressures. This means they remain on the Court until they die, retire, resign, or are removed from office through the impeachment process. When a vacancy arises, the President of the United States nominates a new justice, who must then be confirmed by the Senate through its "advice and consent" power, a process that is often highly scrutinized and politically charged. Once seated, each justice has a single, equal vote in deciding the cases argued before the Court. In cases where the Chief Justice is part of the majority, they typically assign the task of writing the Court's official opinion, which explains the legal reasoning behind the decision. If the Chief Justice is in the minority, this crucial assignment falls to the most senior Associate Justice within the majority.

The Supreme Court conducts its vital work from the iconic Supreme Court Building, a majestic marble structure located in Washington, D.C. Its day-to-day operations and security are meticulously managed, with its own dedicated law enforcement arm, the Supreme Court Police, ensuring the safety and order of the institution.

Landmark Ruling: Shelley v. Kraemer (1948)

In the annals of American legal history, *Shelley v. Kraemer*, 334 U.S. 1 (1948), stands out as a pivotal Supreme Court case that significantly advanced civil rights by striking down racially restrictive housing covenants. This decision was a crucial step in dismantling legal segregation, particularly in the realm of housing, and highlighted the Fourteenth Amendment's reach.

The case originated in St. Louis, Missouri, a city, like many others across the nation, where practices designed to maintain racial segregation in housing were deeply entrenched. An African-American family, the Shelleys, sought to purchase a home, only to discover that the property was subject to a restrictive covenant. These covenants were clauses written into property deeds that legally bound homeowners not to sell or rent to specific racial or ethnic groups, often explicitly stating prohibitions against "people of the Negro or Mongolian Race." When a white neighbor, Louis Kraemer, learned of the Shelleys' purchase, he challenged it in court, arguing that enforcing the covenant was his legal right. The local courts initially upheld the covenant, and the Missouri Supreme Court affirmed this decision, effectively blocking the Shelleys from occupying their new home. This deeply unjust outcome prompted the Shelleys to appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court.

In a landmark majority opinion delivered by Chief Justice Fred Vinson, joined by the other five participating justices (three justices recused themselves due to their own ownership of property with similar covenants), the Supreme Court ruled decisively against the enforcement of such covenants. The core of Vinson's holding rested on the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause, which guarantees that no state shall "deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws." The Court acknowledged that private parties were free to agree to the terms of a racially restrictive covenant among themselves. However, the crucial distinction—and the ingenious legal argument that transformed the outcome—was that judicial enforcement of such a covenant by a state court constituted "state action."

By involving the machinery of the state's judiciary to uphold and enforce these discriminatory agreements, the state itself became complicit in denying individuals equal protection under the law. Thus, while private prejudice might persist, the government could not be used as a tool to effectuate it. This ruling dramatically curtailed the ability of property owners to legally enforce racial segregation in housing, even though it did not directly outlaw private discriminatory practices. Nevertheless, *Shelley v. Kraemer* was a monumental victory, paving the way for future civil rights advancements by removing the state's powerful stamp of approval from racial discrimination in real estate.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

What is the primary role of the U.S. Supreme Court?
The Supreme Court serves as the highest judicial body in the United States, primarily hearing appeals from lower federal and state courts on matters involving federal law or the Constitution, and occasionally exercising original jurisdiction over specific types of cases.
How many justices serve on the Supreme Court?
The Supreme Court consists of nine justices: one Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices. This number has been set by Congress since 1869.
What is "judicial review"?
Judicial review is the power of the Supreme Court to declare acts of the legislative and executive branches unconstitutional. This includes federal and state laws, as well as presidential directives, ensuring they align with the U.S. Constitution.
How do cases reach the Supreme Court?
Most cases reach the Supreme Court through a petition for a "writ of certiorari," which is a request for the Court to review a lower court's decision. At least four of the nine justices must agree to grant certiorari for a case to be heard.
How long do Supreme Court justices serve?
Supreme Court justices hold lifetime tenure, meaning they serve until their death, retirement, resignation, or removal from office through the impeachment process. This ensures their independence from political pressures.
What was the significance of *Shelley v. Kraemer*?
*Shelley v. Kraemer* (1948) was a landmark Supreme Court case that ruled that state courts could not enforce racially restrictive housing covenants. While it didn't ban private discrimination, it crucially determined that judicial enforcement of such covenants constituted "state action" and violated the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause, making them legally unenforceable.
Does the Supreme Court hear all types of cases?
No, the Supreme Court primarily hears cases involving questions of federal law or the U.S. Constitution. It does not typically hear cases based solely on state law unless a federal constitutional issue is also involved. Furthermore, it only hears actual "cases and controversies" and avoids purely "political questions."