American Indian Wars: Sitting Bull leads his band of Lakota into Canada to avoid harassment by the United States Army under Colonel Nelson Miles.

The history of North America, from the earliest European arrivals through the turn of the 20th century, is indelibly marked by a series of protracted and often brutal conflicts known collectively as the American Indian Wars. These conflicts, also referred to as the American Frontier Wars, the Indian Wars, and in Canada, the First Nations Wars (or Guerres des Premières Nations in French), were not isolated skirmishes but a continent-spanning struggle for land, resources, and sovereignty.

From the moment European governments and their colonists began establishing settlements in the 17th century, a complex and often violent dynamic emerged with the continent’s Indigenous inhabitants. As colonial powers like Britain, France, and Spain vied for control, they frequently enlisted various American Indian and First Nation tribes as allies, using their knowledge of the land and martial skills against rival European settlements. These early alliances demonstrated the strategic importance of Indigenous peoples in the colonial landscape.

After the American Revolution, the nature of these conflicts began to shift. Instead of European rivalries, many disputes became more localized, primarily revolving around the rapidly expanding American and Canadian settlers' insatiable demand for land and resources. This westward expansion, particularly after 1780, dramatically intensified the frequency, scale, and ferocity of armed clashes between settlers and diverse Indian and First Nation tribes. The fundamental clash of cultures, differing understandings of land ownership, and the relentless pressure of settler encroachment fueled cycles of violent reprisal, leaving a trail of devastation across the evolving frontier.

A pivotal moment arrived with the War of 1812. During this conflict, powerful coalitions of Indigenous nations in the American Midwest and South bravely fought against the burgeoning United States, hoping to stem the tide of expansion. Their ultimate defeat, however, marked a significant turning point, diminishing the ability of large-scale Indigenous alliances to resist effectively. Following this period, direct armed conflict between settlers and tribes became less common, often giving way to negotiations and treaties, which frequently resulted in the sale or exchange of vast territories between the federal government and specific tribes.

However, the concept of "resolution" often came with profound displacement. The infamous Indian Removal Act of 1830 epitomized a darker chapter of American policy, authorizing the forced relocation of numerous Indigenous nations from their ancestral lands east of the Mississippi River to a designated "Indian Territory" in the west, a region largely encompassing what would become Oklahoma. As American settlers continued their relentless westward advance, this federal policy of removal evolved into the widespread practice of confining Indigenous tribes to increasingly smaller and more isolated reservations, fundamentally altering their traditional ways of life and sovereignty.

Sitting Bull: A Lakota Leader's Resistance

Among the many courageous leaders who emerged during these tumultuous times, Sitting Bull, known in his native Lakota tongue as Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake (meaning "Buffalo Bull Who Sits Down"), stands as an iconic figure of Hunkpapa Lakota resistance. Born around 1831, his life was dedicated to defending his people's sovereignty and way of life against the relentless pressures of United States government policies until his tragic death on December 15, 1890.

Sitting Bull was not only a skilled warrior but also a profound spiritual leader, and his wisdom often guided his people. Famously, prior to the pivotal Battle of the Little Bighorn in 1876, he experienced a powerful vision. In this prophetic dream, he witnessed American soldiers, numerous "as thick as grasshoppers," falling upside down into the Lakota camp. His people interpreted this vision as a clear foreshadowing of a significant victory, one in which many soldiers would be defeated.

Just a few weeks later, on June 25, 1876, this vision appeared to materialize. Under Sitting Bull's inspiring leadership, a confederation of Lakota tribes and their Northern Cheyenne allies decisively defeated the U.S. 7th Cavalry, led by Lt. Colonel George Armstrong Custer. The battle, a stunning tactical victory for the Indigenous forces, resulted in the complete annihilation of Custer's battalion, seemingly validating Sitting Bull's foresight and cementing his status as a visionary leader.

The American government's response, however, was swift and overwhelming. Thousands more soldiers were dispatched to the region, creating immense pressure that forced many Lakota bands to surrender over the following year. Yet, Sitting Bull steadfastly refused to yield. In May 1877, demonstrating his unwavering resolve, he led his followers north across the border into Wood Mountain, a region then part of the North-Western Territory (and now Saskatchewan, Canada), seeking refuge from American pursuit. He remained there, preserving his people's freedom, until 1881, when, facing starvation and dwindling resources, he and most of his band returned to U.S. territory and surrendered to American forces.

After his surrender, Sitting Bull briefly achieved international fame as a performer with Buffalo Bill's Wild West show, a stark contrast to his life as a war leader. However, his influence remained undiminished among his people. Upon returning to the Standing Rock Agency in South Dakota, his presence continued to inspire hope and, for some, apprehension. In late 1890, authorities grew increasingly concerned that Sitting Bull would lend his considerable influence to the burgeoning Ghost Dance movement, a spiritual revival that advocated for a return to traditional ways and a peaceful removal of settlers, but which the U.S. government viewed as a dangerous rebellion.

On December 15, 1890, fearing his involvement in the Ghost Dance movement, Indian Service agent James McLaughlin at Fort Yates ordered Sitting Bull's arrest. During the attempt, a violent struggle erupted between Sitting Bull's supporters and the agency police. Tragically, in the ensuing chaos, after police were fired upon by his followers, Sitting Bull was shot in the side and head by Standing Rock policemen Lieutenant Bull Head (Tȟatȟáŋka Pȟá) and Red Tomahawk (Čhaŋkpí Dúta). He died on the spot. His body was initially taken to nearby Fort Yates for burial. Decades later, in 1953, his Lakota family undertook the solemn task of exhuming what they believed to be his remains, reinterring them near Mobridge, South Dakota, close to his ancestral birthplace, ensuring that his legacy would continue to resonate with his people.

Frequently Asked Questions About the American Indian Wars and Sitting Bull

What were the American Indian Wars?
The American Indian Wars were a series of widespread conflicts fought over several centuries in North America between European governments and colonists (and later the United States and Canadian governments and settlers) and various American Indian and First Nation tribes. These conflicts were primarily driven by disputes over land, resources, and sovereignty.
When did these conflicts take place?
These wars spanned a vast period, beginning with the earliest European colonial settlements in the 17th century and continuing until the early 20th century.
What were the primary causes of the American Indian Wars?
The conflicts arose from a complex array of factors including European colonial expansion, differing concepts of land ownership and resource use, cultural clashes, broken treaties, and the relentless pressure of westward-moving settlers.
What was the Indian Removal Act of 1830?
The Indian Removal Act of 1830 was a significant piece of U.S. legislation that authorized the American government to forcibly relocate numerous Indigenous nations from their ancestral lands east of the Mississippi River to designated "Indian Territory" further west, predominantly in what is now Oklahoma.
Who was Sitting Bull?
Sitting Bull (Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake) was a highly respected Hunkpapa Lakota leader, born around 1831, who became a prominent figure in the resistance against United States government policies and encroachment on Indigenous lands during the latter half of the 19th century.
What was Sitting Bull's role in the Battle of the Little Bighorn?
Sitting Bull was a spiritual and strategic leader who inspired his people before and during the Battle of the Little Bighorn in June 1876. His prophetic vision of falling soldiers was seen as a powerful omen of victory, and his leadership contributed to the decisive defeat of Lt. Colonel George Armstrong Custer's 7th Cavalry by the confederated Lakota and Northern Cheyenne forces.
Why was Sitting Bull killed?
Sitting Bull was killed on December 15, 1890, by Indian agency police on the Standing Rock Indian Reservation during an attempt to arrest him. Authorities feared he would use his influence to support the Ghost Dance movement, a spiritual revival that the U.S. government perceived as a threat.
What was the Ghost Dance movement?
The Ghost Dance movement was a late 19th-century spiritual and religious revival among various Native American tribes. It was a peaceful movement that promised a return to traditional ways, a reunification with ancestors, and the eventual departure of settlers, through ceremonial dance and prayer. However, it was widely misunderstood and feared by U.S. authorities.
Where is Sitting Bull buried?
Sitting Bull was initially buried at Fort Yates. In 1953, his Lakota family exhumed what they believed to be his remains and reburied them near Mobridge, South Dakota, close to his birthplace, ensuring his resting place was among his people.